Associate Professor of Fine Arts Education, Faculty of Education, Nara University of Education Takabatake-cho, Nara City, Nara Prefecture, 630-8528, Japan udah@nara-edu.ac.jp
* This paper was presented at the 31st World INSEA conferenc, New York (August 22, 2002)
Key word: Recent educational reform in Japan, Centralism, Course of Study by the Ministry of Education, Comparative view points between Japan and America, Playful Art Study in elementary school, Appreciation study in elementary and lower secondary schools, Integrated Studies.
1. Introduction
This paper focuses upon the educational reform underway after 1977 in Japan. Japanese educational system has been centralized by the Ministry of Education which has considerable influence upon teachers in public schools. In the last two decades, the Ministry of Education suggested teaching guidelines and methods in art lessons. And this educational reform brought both achievement and critical problems in art education. The last two decades will be divided into two chronological stages as follows for the research convenience.
1,The Period from 1977(Showa 52ed) to 1988(Showa 63rd): Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1977(the 5th Course of Study after World War II). Playful Art Study (Zoukei-asobi) got started in the lower grades of elementary school, which includes playing with materials and integrated expression based on the experiences.
2,The Period from 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th): Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1989(the 6th Course of Study). And new Course of Study was announced in 1998(the 7th Course of Study) and it was put into effect in April 2002. Playful Art and appreciation study are emphasized in the both Course of Studies.
The purpose of this research is to analyze this reform and to make basic resources for proposing good annual teaching programs for students. The overview of this research runs as follows: to clarify both achievement and critical problems of Playful Art Study, and to consider the relation of Fine Arts study to Integrated Studies (Life Environment Studies and "Period for Integrated Study").
2.Educational administration in Japan
: Comparison between educational system of Japan and that of the U.S.A.
2.1.Centralized educational system
Contrary to the U.S.A where Local administration has independent education system, Japanese educational system is centralized. All Japanese prefectures use authorized textbooks under Course of Study by Ministry of Education. Toku (1997) stated this situation as follows 1).
It is unusual that all prefectures use governmentally authorized textbooks under nation- wide curriculum by Ministry of Education as Japan. Many nations have complicated background in culture, race, religion and politics. So it is impossible and even dangerous that those nations have centralized educational systems. Each state (and district) has different cultural backgrounds, so it is practical that they have independent educational systems under local administrations. There are major ideas and thoughts in art Education, but each state (and district) interprets them differently in the U.S.A. Each teacher practices art education based on various curriculums.
Japanese educational system is exceptional and unique in the world, so we present this system at first.
2.2. Course of Study by Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture.
The Course of Study is revised by the Ministry of Educationabout every 10 years to meet changing needs and conditions. After World War II, the Course of Study was officially announced 7 times. In recent 25years, the Course of Study was revised in 1977(the 5th Course of Study), 1989(the 6th Course of Study), and 1998 (the 7th Course of Study). The Minister of Education says that the Course of Study is not a law, but a guideline for teachers. But this guideline restricts many teachers' behaviors. This is a norm for teachers in public schools.
Ministry of Education conveys new Course of Study to Prefectural Board of Education, and supervisors of Prefectural Board convey it to Municipal Board in the training meeting. And teachers accept it throughout the country. This is, as it were, conveyance of the will and ideas of those who govern to those who are governed.
Private company edits the textbook based on the Course of Study. And the Textbook Authorization Research Council judges the suitability of each textbook and recommends suitable ones to the Minister of Education. The Minister authorizes textbooks on the basis of the Council's recommendations. In compulsory education, municipal boards of education decide which textbooks to adopt on the basis of the teachers' recommendations. The textbooks are provided free of charge while the students are at the level of compulsory education.
In the next three tables (Table 1-3), we show change of the overall objectives and the standard number of yearly school hours in these three Revised Course of Studies. The overall objectives are not changed so much, and they have the outline as follows. 1), To educate student through two fields, aesthetic expression and appreciation .2), To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities. 3), To make student enjoy the pleasure of the aesthetic expression. 4), To make student cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an enriched sensibility in the Fine Arts.
The standard number of yearly school hours was decreased sharply, because the five- day- week school system and Integrated Studies were introduced in the 7th Course of Study 2).
In the 5th Course of Study, all grades of elementary school had two school hours (90 minutes) in a week. In the 7th Course of Study, there are two school hours (90 minutes) in lower grades, 1.7 school hours (about 77 minutes) in middle grades, 1.4 school hours (about 64 minutes) in upper grades. From 1st grade to 6th grade, total number of yearly school hours was reduced by 14.4%. In the 5th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicraft accounted for 7.2% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities. However in the 7th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicrafts accounts for 6.7% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities.
In a week of the 5th Course of Study, there were two school hours (100 minutes) in 7th and 8th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in the 9th grade. In 7th Course of Study, there are about 1.3 school hours (64 minutes) in the 7th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in 8th and 9th grade. From 7th grade to 9th grade, total number of yearly school hours was reduced by 34.3%. In the 5th Course of Study, Fine Arts accounted for 5.6% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities, but in the 7th Course of Study, Fine Arts accounts for 3.9% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities.
Present conditions of Japanese art education are very hard in number of yearly school hours. And Life Environment Studies and Integrated Studies are going to overlap with the contents of Art Study. So art teachers feel uncertain about their future. They sometimes say "Art Study might not be able to survive as subject in the next Course of Study". But Toku (1997) stated that most American art teaches work in precarious position. She says that her condition is harder than Japanese teacher 3). This is because that school subject should have practical aims and values that everyone recognize in the U.S.A. So American society can't permit ambiguous expression such as "fostering an enriched sensibility" in the Japanese fine Arts. People tend to expect that art study should make student acquire something practical.
Ms. Toku taught Fine Art in a private catholic school (St. Matthew School) in the State of Illinois. She had art class two days in a week, but art class was very short time. She taught 25minutes from 1st grade to 3rd grade, 30minutes in 4th grade, 40minutes in 5th and 6th grade, 45minutes in 7th and 8th grade. She had to have practical aim and teach the least contents effectively. Compared with the condition of art education in the U.S.A., ours is fortunate at least as an educational system. Getting the information from foreign countries, we have to clarify the status of art study more in the whole curriculum.
Table 1
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1977 (the 5th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in lower secondary schools: To make student develop the ability in aesthetic expression and appreciation, enjoy the pleasure of creative activities, cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2. Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is six-day-week system. One week has 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes） for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary Schools. In 7th grade and 8th grade, we have 2 school hours（100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 9th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
Table 2
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1989 (the 6th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in Elementary Schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in Lower Secondary Schools: To make student develop the ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of creative activities, cultivating an appreciation of art, and fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2.Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is 5.5 day-week-system. (In a month, 1st and 3rd week have 6 days. And 2nd and 4th week have 5 days.) 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7th grade, we have 2 school hours （100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8th grade, we have 1-2 school hours（50-100minutes） for Fine Arts in a week. In 9th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
Table 3
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1998 (the 7th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student enjoy the pleasure of the aesthetic expression, cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in lower secondary Schools: To make student develop basic ability, enjoy the pleasure of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby cultivating an appreciation of art, and fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2,Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is five-day-week system. One week has 23-27 school hours in elementary school and 28 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. In 1st grade and 2nd grade, we have 2 school hours（90minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 3rd grade and 4th grade, we have 1.7 school hours（about 77minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 5th grade and 6th grade, we have 1.4 school hours（about 64minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7th grade, we have 1.3 school hours（about 64minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8th grade and 9th grade, we have one school hour （50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
3. Recent 25years in art education
3.1. From 1977(Showa 52nd) to 1988(Syowa 63rd)
Japanese high-degree economic growth occupied the attention of the whole world around 1980(Showa 55th). In those days, Japanese education reached a peak in system and consciousness of the people 4). 94% of the students advanced to upper secondary school and 38% of students advanced to university. Junior high school Students rioted against teachers in 1980(Showa 55th). Since this time, there have been dangerous phenomena such as school violence, autism, school refusal, bullying, escaping from study, or collapse of elementary class. Centralism and standardization of education were criticized by Ad Hoc Council on Education. This Council was established in 1984(Showa 59th). And it proposed that educational system should introduce liberalization and individualization under private management. This concept has been argued under educational ease of restrictions.
Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1977 (Showa 52nd). Playful Art Study (Zoukei-asobi) was introduced in the lower grades of elementary school. Playful Art Study has playing with materials, integrated expression by whole body and senses. This activity emphasizes that students have desire to express themselves, so it can not be defined such as painting, sculpture, design, craft and so on. The 4th Course of Study was framed systematically, so introduction to Playful Art Study dramatically change the keynote of Handicraft and Drawing. This change was forerunner of other subjects in School, because Ministry of Education proposed new viewpoint of scholastic ability, studying independently and establishing Life Environment Studies in the next Course of Study (1989).
In the 7th Course of Study (1998), Playful Art was spread in all grades of elementary school, because this study was in line with the new viewpoint of scholastic ability. In the U.S.A., DBAE (Discipline -Based Art Education) proposed that art study as discipline should survive in school art. In contrast, Japanese Ministry of Education and art teachers proposed that art study as Playful Art should survive in school art. In Japanese art education history, there are three trends centered on student as Table 4. Playful Art Study guarantees more freedom for student than Free-Drawing Education (Non-drawing from a copy) in the latter half of Taisho period (1918-1926) and Creative art education immediately after World War II. Naka (2000), an art theory scholar, called this trend "super-creative art education", guaranteeing more freedom of student 5). Kaneko (1998), an art education scholar, called this period underway after 1977, "aesthetic art education period" 6).
When we think alternative art education, a problem is how we grasp Playful Art that took root in today's school. This is because that this activity overlaps with trends such as mixed media and multimedia in contemporary Arts. They have the possibility to spread aesthetic expression and appreciation, but they bring us ambiguous contents and method in art education. Because students live in the world of video information, it is difficult to select expression and appreciation contents severely under the limited school hours.
Some teachers had made objections against those trends and proposed distinct methods. Matsumoto (1975) shows painting by using only three primary colors and Sakai (1989) shows simple method in drawing and composition and so on. Many young and middle-aged teachers support those methods. In the appreciation study, those teachers use analytic criticism introduced from the U.S.A. Teachers use analytic criticism in Japanese Language class at first, then they use it in art class 7).
Since the period from the latter half of 1960's to the 1970's, teacher training Universities have established graduate courses of art education. Tokyo Gakugei University established such course in 1968 and Osaka Kyoiku Univerity in 1975. Researchers of art education were rained in these courses and then they and their teachers established the Academic Society in 1982. These researches have introduced the thoughts and practices from the U.S.A. and Germany and so on.
Table 4
Three art education trends centered on student
3.2.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th)
3.2.1.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 1997(Heisei 9th)
The 6th Course of Study was officially announced in 1989 under the influence of cognitive psychology and world educational reform 8). This Course of Study had appearances of Life Environment Studies, slogan such as new viewpoint of scholastic ability and studying independently. Playful Art Study was expanded in the middle grades of elementary school. And appreciation study was emphasized in it under Curriculum Council Report (1987) 9).
This report showed reformed point, that is, teacher should make students appreciate international affairs, and cultivate attitude of respecting culture and tradition in their own nation. The 6th Course of Study said that teachers have appreciation activities without expression in the upper grades of elementary school, and have appreciation activities such as art and human-being in lower secondary school.
Art museums had started to stress on department of education and diffusion in the latter half of1980's. They have introduced educational events such as gallery talk, worksheet, workshop from America and Europe. These programs and educational resources had been published since then 10). Study group of museum education was organized by researchers in 1991, and next year (1992) was peak in zest of museum education. International symposium was held in Tokyo and Yokohama. The subject of the symposium was museum education in Germany and other countries. After this, museums have tried to practice educational programs and they have taken root throughout the country.
The works, introduced to art world, have been published in the first half of 1990's. They were published for general public, so these books didn't always need training in the art history. There have been a calm boom of artistic appreciation since then 11). For children and beginners, picture books of masterpieces and art history with Manga (carton) have been
edited and published by art history scholars 12). During this time, art education researchers have introduced to Japan new ideas such as DBAE (Discipline-Based Art Education) and related thoughts. "Educating Artistic Vision" by E. W. Eisner was translated into Japanese and published (1987) and W. D. Greer's idea was interpreted in a Japanese art education journal 13). Teachers and researchers who had made objections against Ministry of Education's policy, had quoted Eisner's Artistic Vision and Greer's four disciplines. They had proposed distinct and rational methods survive art study in school. These teachers didn't necessarily have approved Playful Art Study and some of them had denied Playful Art strongly.
But dispute over DBAE subjects was introduced at the same time. It is very important for Japan and Asian countries to dispute about forcing the value of Western art on student tacitly, and to consider standardized materials and teacher-proof curriculum.
3.2.2.The period from 1998(Heisei 10th) to 2001(Heisei 13th)
The 7th Course of Study was officially announced in December 1998 and had put into effect in April 2002(In Japan, School year starts in April). Ministry of Education proposed lifelong education society in the Course of Study and had introduced a five-day school week since April 2002. Introducing some new studies and activities in the Course of Study, new contents were tried by teachers in the transitional period from 1998 to 2001.
Playful Art Study was spread in all grades of elementary school as previously stated. And secondary school's Course of Study introduced new artistic expression such as Manga (cartoon), illustration, photograph, video, computer graphics and so on. Appreciation study pays attention to Asian art as Western art. There are multiple and various trends in art class today. And Integrated Studies was newly introduced in elementary and secondary schools. In this Studies, students are expected to study independently and seek to find the answer by themselves. Each school is now struggling to obtain achievement in Integrated Studies.
4. Playful Art Study in elementary school
4.1.What is playful Art Study?
In the Course of Study (1977), Playful Art Study was introduced to Drawing and Handicraft in 1st grade and 2nd grade. This Playful Art was expected to relate to kindergarten's formative expression activities, namely, children express and make something as they play in there. This study's aim ran as follows: to make student express independently as they play, to enjoy enough the pleasure of the artistic expression. Teacher should expect student to hit upon ideas and thoughts independently, not to express for desirable goal at first. Teacher lays stress on student 's expressive process, not outcomes (works) 14).
Considering Playful Art, we need to think about background of art class in Japan. Traditionally, Japanese teacher set narrow and focused goal, so students painted same model and theme. Teacher made students paint works of high quality, but they are standardized works. Teacher made students be impressed by accomplishment and success, so students had strong will of next expression. Kitao (1991), a cognitive psychologist proposed Two Dimension Model for Teaching Method and Goal as Figure 1 15). He showed four main types in teaching method and goal. The axis of ordinates shows the axis of teaching goal. The more the point stands away from the origin, the more teaching goal gets free. And the axis of abscissa shows the axis of teaching method. The more the point stands away from the origin, the more teaching method gets free.
Now we apply this Two dimension Model to teaching art. A type has closed goal and method such as drawing same model under distinct goal. But even if this type, each student may have delicate different goal in art class. B type has free goal and closed method such as imaginative drawing under same materials and theme. Students start planning under same materials and theme, but they expressed individual theme finally. C type has closed goal and free method such as programmatic study. Teacher presents two or three materials at the beginning of the term, each student plans individual program and finishes the works until the end of the term. They can have choice of making order, but they have to arrive distinct goal. Teacher must present distinct self-evaluation items for students. D type has free goal and method such as free inquiry and expression in art. Students seek their theme and material under their individual interest and will. Kitao said that there were many A type-classes in Japan as compared with America and Europe. Teachers who proposed Playful Art Study, criticized A type-classes. They proposed art study based on Playful Art Study, so they tried to increase B or D type-classes.
There are many painting competition for children and students in preschool, elementary and secondary schools. Some Major competitions are supported by Ministry of Education, and teacher make efforts to get first prize, Prize of Minister of Education. Of course these competitions had merit for students, but had demerit, too. In those days, teachers tended to devote themselves to get prizes for honor of themselves, schools and districts. (Today, some of the teachers teach Handicraft and drawing in this way.) Teachers' excessive teaching sometimes ruined student' expressive will and zest in lower grades of elementary school. Ministry of Education and some teacher established Playful Art Study against these tendencies based on painting competition.
Teaching Plan 1 is quoted from Teaching Resources by Ministry of Education 16). As previously stated, Playful Art Study lays stress on independent expressions and dose not expect students to have distinct goal at first (goal free). And teacher's role is supporting student's activities, preparing various materials and setting activity space. Course of Study denies teacher's excessive teaching strongly. These activities produce many work styles at last, for example, painting, relief, installation, environmental art, performance art and so on. Under the control of Ministry of Education, teacher developed and researched teaching materials for Playful Art in university-attached schools and experimental public schools. These leading researches and practices were spread all through the country.
Figure 1 Two Dimension Model for Teaching Method and Goal (Kitao,1991)
4.2.Present conditions and perspectives in Playful Art Study
Playful Art Study has brought achievement and critical problems in recent art education practice. One educational practice has two faces, so we present both of them, namely, achievement and critical problems of Playful Art at the same time.
This study's idea put the brakes on teacher's excessive teaching for painting competition. Once again, we had started to have a point of view of aesthetic expression by the child. These ideas had a role to destroy teacher's scholastic ability in Drawing and Handicrafts. But this strong zest and reform movement have become stereotyped after 25years. We occasionally see stereotyped Playful Art Study in recent elementary school class.
This study extended contents of art education field, based on drawing and paining before. This Playful Art Study has broad fields such as playing with materials, integrated expression, mixing various media and so on. So teacher has observed Arts in living life and paid attention to modern and contemporary art. On the other hand, representative drawing has been treated lightly in the Course of Study. Because Playful Art lays stresses on imaginative and creative drawing, representative drawing has been losing standing point in a limited school hours. Current problem is that student has little time for basis of color, treating drawing brush, and composition and so on. Some students want to have more time for representative drawing in upper grades of elementary school.
Since this study has radical ideas and theories such as self -expression, and social constructivism, many teachers can not understand these thoughts enough. These teachers criticize that Playful Art Study has ambiguous scholastic ability and strongly depends on will in student. They sometimes say that teacher must give up art class if students don' t have will and zest for expression.
Individual student's interest and idea are very important in Playful Art Study, so it is effective that one teacher teaches proper number of students. But this study doesn't fit for Japanese educational system or class style yet. There are a few teachers who teach only Drawing and Handicrafts professionally in Japan. Most teachers take charge of their classes, teach many subjects except for a few subjects (Music and Homemaking and so on). They are very busy to prepare many subjects and classroom work, so they have no time for gathering materials and researching Playful Art. And there are 40-pupils-per-class system except for a few cases. So it is sometimes difficult that teacher supports expressive wills in all students.
In addition to the previous statements, introduction of Integrated Studies has influenced playful Art and art class. Next we will consider the relation of art class to Integrated Studies.
Relation of art class to Integrated Studies (Life Environment Studies and "Period for Integrated Study")
5.1.What is "Period for Integrated Study"?
Establishing Integrated Studies was reported by Central Council for Education and Curriculum Council. So the 7th Course of Study (1998) established "Period for Integrated Study" from 3rd grade to upper secondary schools 17). The 6th Course of Study (1989) established Life Environment Studies for 1st and 2nd grade. So we have Integrated Studies both elementary and secondary schools now. In the new curriculum, these studies should have important role for cultivating the "zest for living" such as ability to learn and think independently. The 7th Course of Study says that overall objectives of "Period for Integrated Study" run as follows: to cultivate nature and ability of studying independently (finding out own theme, considering, seeking and solving own theme independently), and to foster attitude of seeking own life style.
For example, themes of these Integrated Studies run as follows: (1) crossed themes beyond the subjects and integrated themes such as understanding international affairs, information, environment, welfare and health, (2), themes based on individual interest, (3) characteristic themes based on the district and the school. And methods of teaching of these studies run as follows: (1) learning by experiences such as natural experience, volunteer activities, (2) practices such as observation, experiment, field trip, research, presentation, debate, making and product, leaning by solving problem.
5.2.Relation of art study to Integrated Studies
Now we should consider the relation of art study to these Integrated Studies, because the Integrated Studies are similar to art study in objectives and contents. It has been a main purpose of art education after World War II that student finds out his/her own theme of expression and express independently. The Integrated Studies and other subjects have approached art study in recent 10years.So we should have good curriculum that consider the relation of two studies. For example, students experience various materials in Playful Art Study, next they research materials such as sand and clay in Integrated Studies. And musical instrument, color study, and environmental art have much possibility of Integrated Studies. Further we should present original value of art study that differs from other field studies at the same time. If we can't present original value, Ministry of Education and our society might expel art study from school.
We are now researching art study as required subject and showing the Integrated Studies plan based on art field. Concerning the Integrated Studies based on art field, we proposed as follows 18) : poster, papermaking, plaything, making costume, making huge thing, animation, making totem pole in park, art event in school festival, research on advertisement company, workshop by artist. Artistic appreciation has much possibility in the Integrated Studies based on art, so we are now researching language and criticism between art and Japanese language. And Chapman's art card (1988) 19) and German gymnasium art class 20) tell us importance of appreciation. We can study these educations as appreciation study at first, and study as Integrated Studies at next time. Because it is education for international and cross-cultural understanding that we study foreign appreciation study. We can talk and research the problem such as cultural difference and acculturation.
The Integrated Studies has just started in April 2002, so it is no time to state achievement and critical problems. We are sure of possibilities in art study and continue our research in art education.
6. Conclusion: Japanese educational reform and art eductionin recent 25 years
The Author traced Japanese educational reform and art education history in recent 25 years. Art teacher and Ministry of Education have reformed idea and method in class. Now Ministry of Education is trying to shift the stress from school subjects to the Integrated Studies. From this history, we can say several points as follows.
Playful Art Study was established in elementary school 25 years ago. This study has proposed new ideas and changed teachers' consciousness and culture on educational practice. But this study has brought critical problems such as decreasing representative drawing and art theories at the same time. This history suggests us that we should have balance between independent expression and teaching art. We should respect both values in school education.
We should consider relation of art class to the Integrated Studies and respect both educational values. It is important that we have meaningful curriculum for student and make art study useful to the Integrated Studies. The Integrated Studies can also be planned to be useful for Art expression and appreciation.
Art appreciation study is very useful for the Integrated Studies, so we should develop teaching materials for art appreciation positively. Art appreciation study will make us seek language, criticism, our culture, systems in art museum, life-long study society and so on.
We need to reform educational system and administration. We should realize proper number of students in a class and prepare computer and art room for creative activities. And we need to set up in-service education enough for studying Playful Art and art appreciation.
Okazaki (2000) stated comparison of Japanese educational reform and American one as follows 21). There is striking contrast between Japanese reform and American one. Symbol of the Japanese reform is establishing "Period for Integrated Study" (1998) under decrease of subjects hours. And American reform symbol is establishing subject standard strictly such as The National Visual Arts Standard (1994). Okazaki used metaphors of mirror to explain the relation of two countries.
Now we have to gather proper and well-timed information from the world. If it were not for proper information, art education could not survive in Japan. It was misfortune for students. The Author will continue to research art education history and construct alternative education in the 21st century.
Notes and References
- Toku, Masami 1997. "Nichibei no bijutu kyoiku no hikaku (Comparison of Art Education in Japan and the U.S.: Toward the 21st Century)", Art Education No.27, Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co., Japan, pp.75-76
- Web site http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e4042.html
- op.cit. Toku 1997. pp.76-83
- Sato, Manabu 1996. Kyoiku houhou gaku ( Educational Methodology), Iwanami-syoten Publishing Co., Japan.
- Naka, Sadahiko 2000."Discipline ron no yukue (Discipline in Art Education)", Bijutu kyoiku no kadai to tenbou (Problems and Prospects in Art Education) (ed. by Keitoku, Minoru), Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co., Japan, p.3
- Kaneko, Kazuo 1998. Bijutuka kyoiku no houhouron to rekishi (Method and History in Art Education), Chuokoron-bijutu Publishing Co., Japan.
- Matsumoto, Kimiko 1975. Sangen syoku no enogu bako (Three primary colors in painting box), Horupu Publishing Co., Japan. Sakai, Shingo 1989. Sakai shiki byouga sidouhou nyumon ( Introduction to Sakai method in drawing and painting), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan. Iwamoto, Yasuhiro 1990. Bunseki hihyou ni yoru meiga kansyou no jyugyou (Appreciating famous picture in art class: Appreciation by analytic criticism method), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan.
- For example, Gardner, Howard 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Basic Book Inc., New York, Gardner 1985. The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution, Basic Book Inc., New York, (It was translated into Japanese and published in 1987.)
- Web site http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e2043.html,
- Tansei-research institute 1987. Hakubutukan bijutukan no kyoiku program (Museum worksheet: educational program in museum). Japan. , Hokkaido Modern Art Museum 1989. Kaiga nyumon (Introduction to the appreciating picture: children and parents in museum), Shinchosya Publishing Co. Japan., Yamamoto, Ikuo (ed.) 1992-present. DOME: Document of Museum Education, Nihon-Bunkyo Publishing Co., Japan.
- Nishioka, Fumihiko 1992. Kaiga no mikata (Appreciation method of picture), Takarajima Publishing Co. Japan. , Amelia Arenas 1998. Naze kore ga art nano (Is This Art?: A Guide for Bewildered), Tanko-sya Publishing Co. Japan.
- Nishimura, Kazuko (supervised by Tuji, Sigeru) 1992-present. Ohanashi meiga shirizu (Picture book of masterpiece), Hakugado Publishing Co., Japan. Takashina, Syuji （supervised） 1994. Manga seiyo bijutu shi (Western art history with Manga (cartoon)), Bijutu-syuppan Publishing Co. Japan.
- Eisner, Elliot W. 1972. Educating Artistic Vision, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. New York. Greer, W. Dwaine 1984. "Discipline-Based Art Education: Approaching Art as a Subject of Study",Studies in Art Education: A Journal of Issues and Research in Art Education 25(4), NAEA (National Art Education Association), Virginia.( Research Readings for Discipline- based Art Education : A Journey Beyond Creating. (ed. by Dobbs et al.) NAEA, Virginia, 1988), Parsons, Michel J. (1987); How we understand Art: Cognitive developmental account of aesthetic experience, Cambridge Univ. Press., New York (It was translated into Japanese and published in 1996)
- Takayama, Masagiku and Higuchi, Toshio 1977. Kaitei syougakou gakusyu shidou youryiou no tenkai zuga kousaku hen (New Handicraft and drawing's contents in Revised Course of Study), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan, pp. 47-48
- Kitao, Norihiko 1991. Gakusyu sido no sinri gaku ( Psychology in Learning guidance). Yuhikaku Publishing Co., Japan. pp.113-137
- Monbusho(Ministry of Education) 1991. Shogakko zuga kousaku shidou shiryo (Handicraft and Drawing's Teaching Plan Resources in elementary school), Nihon-Bunkyo Publishing Co., Japan, pp.112- 115
- Web Site of Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Government of Japan (Monbusho), http://www.monbu.go.jp/emindex.html,http://www.mext.go.jp/english/, http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e2041.html.
- Fukomoto, Iwasaki, Uda, et al. 2002. "Report on Activities of the Research Forum 2001: Sougou gakusyu to bijutu kyoiku (Integrated Studies and Art Education)", Bijutu kyoiku gaku (The Journal for the Association of Art Education). No.23, Japan, pp. 295-322. http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/aae/kaisi.html
- Chapman, Laura H. 1988. Teaching Art, Davis Pub. Inc., Massachusetts. 20) In 2000, Yokohama National University held Extension lectures. This lecture's theme was Art Appreciation and Expression in German Gymnasium Class. In the lectures, Annemarie Schulze-Weslarn, a former teacher taught Fine Arts to the attendants as she taught in gymnasium school. Appreciation study was centered on in her art class.
- Okazaki, Akio 2000. "America bijutu kyouiku no doko (Art Education in the U.S.A.)", Bijutu kyoiku no kadai to tenbou (Problems and Prospects in Art Education), Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co., Japan, p.21.
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