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Toku's Photos
Re-imagining Traditions of Art Education and Educational Reform in Japan
Wenchun Wang & Kazuhiro Ishizaki
*This paper was presented at the 31st World INSEA (International Society for Education through Art) convention in New York, Summer 2002.
We will discuss the current problems of Japanese art education.First we would like to explain the concept of the seminar. Japanesesociety has been undergoing a drastic change. We have seen decliningbirth rates, the aging of the population, computerization and globalization. In order to respond to these changes, various reforms are underway and an educational reform is one of them. In the latest educational reform, the Period of Integrated Study was newly established for the participation of all teachers. On the other hand, the numbers of classes in fine arts were reduced in the curricula of elementary and junior high schools in April 2002. Our concern is how art teachers can work on Integrated Study actively, and what kind of approach of art education can be made for the problem of Integrated Study.
In Japan, we have had various discussions about a relation between Integrated Study and fine arts but there are two problems. One is our concern that originality as the subject of fine arts may be diminished. The meaning of the subject may be questioned if a philosophy, which fine arts and Integrated Study share, is emphasized. The other problem is the uncertainty of art teachers' involvement with Integrated Study because individual schools and teachers are entrusted with classes in Integrated Study. In this seminar, we are aware that our study on the relation between Integrated Study and fine arts is a key to the regeneration of Japanese art education. We will discuss matters related to "re-imagining traditions" which is one of the themes of this InSEA
Congress. In this seminar, we have four viewpoints.
The first viewpoint is an individual role in the subject of fine arts in school.
We need to clarify the characteristics of fine arts in school in order to discuss the problems of art education in Japan. In other words, in the seminar, we would like to clarify what kind of role and outcome of fine arts in elementary and junior high schools had before we discuss what kind of role art education can play in Integrated Study.
The second viewpoint is the extent of the approach of art education in Integrated Study .
As new issues in the educational reform, there are topics such as information, welfare, international understanding, the environment and human rights. It is important to study the educational values of fine arts in relation to these topics. If a theoretical base, which expands the content of art education, is clear, art education can play a part in Study. Integrated Study may expand the content of art education.
The third viewpoint is a relation between artists' experiences and Integrated Study.
Today artists' interest varies in a wide range and the possibilities of media also widen along with technological reforms. So we have seen new types of arts. Because contemporary arts transcend the conventional framework of art education, it is important to take advantage of what is transcended for Integrated Study as much as possible. In order to handle the problem, it is necessary to redefine or interpret arts from the standpoint of artists.
In addition, we will also discuss Integrated Study in Japan from a global viewpoint. In short, we will discuss the cases of Japan and the U.S. from the viewpoint of the comparison of the culture so as to take an objective view of the approach of art education in Integrated Study in Japan.
Considering the extent of the approach of art appreciation in Integrated Study.
I, Kazuhiro Ishizaki, will discuss the second viewpoint which is presented in this seminar. The second viewpoint is the extent of the approach of art education in Integrated Study.
In order to consider this viewpoint, it is necessary to clarify the extent of the approach of art education in Integrated Study. After analyzing what fine arts can not offer presently, I have figured out what should be compensated for should be the extent of the approach of art education for Integrated Study.
The number of classes in fine arts has been reduced and we have been in a difficult situation. Under the circumstances, we should avoid the situation where fine arts take more responsibility than they really can. I think, we should analyze the outcome, which fine arts can bring about now, and problems caused by what can not be offered by fine arts. Then, I would like to consider and propose the possibility of compensating developmentally through Integrated Study. In order to consider specifically, I will limit our analysis to the realm of art appreciation. In other words, I will analyze what is missing from art appreciation education now and consider what is required of the approach of art education in the Period of Integrated Study.
In order to analyze what is missing from art appreciation now, I will use the result of our comparative survey concerning aesthetic development which has been published in the journal, Studies in Art Education's summer issue. In this survey, we used a questionnaire called "Art Appreciation Profile", which is also called AAP. The AAP was administered from third graders to adults in Japan and the U.S. The AAP was prepared based on the Parsons's developmental stage theory. Our analysis of the survey indicated that Japanese students were characterized by a strong inclination toward expressiveness and formal elements.
As seen in Figure 1, one of the Japanese developmental characteristics is the predominance of the stage three for older people. It is suggested that there is a strong inclination toward expressiveness as they grow older. This characteristic is considerably significant in comparison with the developmental characteristics of the U.S. students as shown in Figure 2. In the case of the Japanese, the percentage of the stage three increases rapidly from ninth graders. In particular, the percentage of the stage three shows 70% or more for adults. On the other hand, the percentage of the stage three does not clearly show developmental changes among Americans.
In the case of the U.S., the percentage of the stage four increases among adults. In particular, as shown in Figure 3, the percentage of the stage four among art education majors in college is significantly high and the percentage of the stage three is extremely low. On the other hand, the percentage of the stage four among art education majors in Japan is lower than the U.S. non-art education majors. In addition, the percentage of the stage three among art education majors in Japan is higher than the U.S. non-art education majors. This result shows a high percentage of the stage three even among art education majors in Japan. In short, the Japanese characteristic of aesthetic development related to art appreciation is a strong inclination toward expressiveness which is characteristic of the stage three.
We will not go into detail here now but I would like to mention that our survey shows that another characteristic was a keen interest in formal elements.
What does the predominance of the developmental stage three indicate as seen in the Japanese cases? According to Parsons, expressions are important topics for those who appreciate art in the stage three and paintings are considered as the expressions of one's feelings so the originality of expressions is considered very important. Their interpretations and judgments are emotional with an emphasis on their feelings but they are not sure of their interpretations. They do not necessarily seek conformity with each other's ideas. On the other hand, the characteristic of the stage four is appreciation with an emphasis on medium, form and style. Their interpretations are modified in artistic contexts such as art history, culture and tradition, and the interpretations of paintings are socially attained in "a community of viewers."
The Japanese characteristic of a strong inclination toward the stage three is considered as one of the outcome of art appreciation education in Japan. Concerning this respect, Efland pointed that modernists in art education think formal elements for the bases of studio production and art appreciation important as well as originality and self expressions. It is considered that art appreciation education in Japan typically reflects the legacy of Modernism.
On the other hand, in art appreciation education in Japan, skill in finding out pictorial contexts objectively and awareness of "a community of viewers" seem to be slighted. These are what current art appreciation education can not offer and we consider them as its problems. I think that the significance of the approach of art education in Integrated Study lies in transcending the limitation of Modernism in art education in Japan. For that reason, it is necessary to find out artistic contexts from a wide range of issues concerning actual society and culture, and talk individual interpretations with many other people. Efland proposed curricula that emphasized a relation between fine arts and culture, acceptance of cultural conflict, and multiple interpretations as Post-modernism in art education. It is integrated curriculum which is also seen in the purposes of Integrated Study and the style of learning in Japan. Considering the present situation where the number of hours for curricula has reduced, it is necessary to clarify the roles of fine arts classes in the continuous acquisition of the outcome of Modernism in Japan in the future as a basic skill. On the other hand, as far as Integrated Study is concerned, it is necessary to give shape to the role of promoting the interpretation of meanings from various viewpoints as the post-modern approach of art education.
Then, how do we image the post-modern approach of art education in Integrated Study in Japan?
For instance, when "community" is selected as a theme in Integrated Study, students will have various viewpoints such as social systems, culture, languages, customs and ideas. At school, subjects have been subdivided and defined such as social studies, Japanese, fine arts and music. However, in Integrated Study, because community can be considered by each student on an individual level, there are a wide variety of ways for having awareness and finding out meanings.
In the case of my college student, he was a member of a group playing local music for folk entertainment. He was interested in traditional local music and musical instruments. For many years, performers have been making their own flutes with shinodake which is local bamboo. But he noticed that the bamboo was not available locally and started looking for shinodake. Finally, he not only analyzed the beauty of shinodake flute such as its shape, ornament and tone, but he also started investigating the history and environment of the community. His quest did not end with his interest in formal elements because he became aware of various contexts related to the folk flute. For instance, he questioned why folk entertainment is not handed down to present young people, and why the materials of the flute, shinodake have disappeared from the region now though they used to be abundant. He developed many essential questions related to community.
As an example in conjunction with Integrated Study at elementary school, there was an art project called "Kemigawa Transmitting Station 2000". In the project, artistic actions and discussions were promoted for the transmitting station which lied in ruins in the area. Local schools and residents were involved with the project. Based on their experience in a workshop for contemporary art, individuals materialized what they thought as an individual "little narrative" through art. We consider the process as an attempt to materialize the viewpoint of the appreciation of Post-modernism basically.
In Integrated Study in Japan, various themes related to our society such as information, welfare, international understanding, the environment and human rights are developed. Like this, in Integrated Study, which aims to develop awareness of our society and culture and to solve their problems, it is significant to promote the post-modern approach of art education in order to regenerate art education in Japan.
Identifying Distinctive Expression Units of Drawing
Hiroshi Ueyama MIYAZAKI University, JAPAN (from1997: MIE University)
*This paper is developed based on the presentation at the 29th World INSEA (International Society for Education through Art) in summer, Montreal.
Design of this Study
This study is a report of a computer system, that can record and analyze the process of drawing.
I think that the individuality of drawing consists of a rather distinctive unit. This idea is based on Levi-Strauss's double-articulation model. However, this idea is just a hypothesis. The computer system that I will report here is made to prove the idea. This system is to enable one to record digital data of drawing lines and analyze them. The purpose of using this system is not limited. First, I'm going to report the outline of the double-articulation model as a background, and second the outline of the system, and at last some discussion.
Background
In linguistics, it is an important issue to identify the unit of language to understand language as an object of science. In the same way, I think the identifying the unit of visual art is useful to develop concepts about art education. The concept of a linguistic unit is proposed by F.Saussure and developed by A.Martinet.
Martinet found linguistic units both in words and sounds. The unit of a word is called semantic unit. The unit of sound is called distinctive unit. This is the theory of double-articulation. This theory is to explain economy of language. Instead of infinite words, the number of sounds in natural language is less than one hundred. If the language does not have this double unit system, we must have an ability to use many thousands of sounds. The theory of double-articulation can explain the fact that the man, whose physical ability is limited uses limitless meanings.
C. Levi-Strauss adapted the theory of double-articulation to visual art. He compared figures in painting as semantic units and shapes and colors as distinctive units. So, he pointed out figurative paintings are similar to language (Figure 1).
There are many criticisms of Levi-Strauss's double-articulation model. For example, P.Francasel denied it for two reasons. First, though semantic unit's meaning is clear, figure's meaning is unclear. That is, a figure can't be regarded as semantic unit because it can accept many meanings. The second, the number of shapes or colors is limitless while the number of distinctive units is limited. In other words, shape and color can't be regarded as distinctive units because they can not be in a small number unit system.
The controversy around the double-articulation model continues now. Anyway, most of the criticisms are from the viewpoint of appreciating art works. However, It is possible to say that double-articulation model can explain the process of visual art expression, as is the same way of explaining the process of language expression. In the case of drawing, for example, there are not many number of lines that a man can control. If a man has a personal characteristic of drawing, a limitless number of lines which he draws derived from the limited number of his own line's units. However, he can draw a limitless number of figures. So, from the viewpoint of understanding the process of producing visual art, the double-articulation model seems to be very useful (Figure 2).
U.Eco is one of the critics of the double-articulation model of visual art. However, he said that there are a few possibilities to prove double-articulation model of visual art by carefully classifying a great deal of data. Also, he suggested using a computer to simulate the units.
Outline of the System
The way to analyze drawing, in general, is just to look at the drawing. The amount and quality of analyzed data does not help in understanding drawing with the idea of a system or a unit. The merits to of using the computer to analyze drawings are to be able to get a huge data as well as time sequenced and to access the data at random, or to refer to the sequential data quickly. Also, the huge data can be analyzed in a very short time.
In this system, you can use the digitizer to put data into computer. The electronic pen for drawing is able to recognize pen pressure and to be used with a common pen cartridge. You can draw with this pen as usual. The computer's tasks are to control the digitizer, to record data, to transform them and to analyze them. The purposes of using the VCR are to get visual data for backup and to get sound data for protocol.
I made the application programs with the BASIC. They are divided into the process of collecting data and analyzing it. These programs can work on MS-DOS with simple transformation (Figure 3).
The processes of getting data are the following.
The computer sends the command for the digitizer so as to return the data of the pen point every 0.05 second. The interval is depend on the ability of the computer. The data that should be returned is the position (in 400 square mesh) and the pressure (in 60 steps) of the pen. The resolution of image is 0.76mm. There is not so large difference between real drawing and simulated drawing.
The data is once recorded on main memory. You can record data over 20 minutes.
After the drawing, the data is transformed into lines and recorded as sequential files in disk memory.
The processes of analyzing are the following.
On the subject of a line that you select in a drawing, the digital data of used second, length, maximum velocity, maximum acceleration and maximum pen pressure are displayed with the whole image of the drawing. In this whole image of the drawing, the selected line is colored green.
On the subject of a line that you select in a drawing, the line graphs that show degrees of pen point movement, velocity, acceleration and pen pressure are displayed. You can choose one of these processes quickly.
Discussion
As you know this report does not show the concrete image of each unit of visual art. However, the following appeared by using this system. In the example of a drawing, you can divide the same formed lines into two groups. These lines are vertical, short and straight. The lines of one group end with decreasing velocity, and the other end with increasing velocity. The lines of the first group are parts of a stalk of a rose, and seconds are outlines of a bottle. So you can see that in the example the two similar lines form is completely different from each other. Moreover, you can see that the velocity transition should be a rather relevant feature to identify distinctive units of drawing.
To identify each unit is to determine whether the features make a complete unit or not. While I'm now considering what feature and what scale can make distinctive units of drawing, it is necessary to continue to develop the computer system.
*This paper is developed based on the presentation at the 29th World INSEA (International Society for Education through Art) in summer, Montreal.
Design of this Study
This study is a report of a computer system, that can record and analyze the process of drawing.
I think that the individuality of drawing consists of a rather distinctive unit. This idea is based on Levi-Strauss's double-articulation model. However, this idea is just a hypothesis. The computer system that I will report here is made to prove the idea. This system is to enable one to record digital data of drawing lines and analyze them. The purpose of using this system is not limited. First, I'm going to report the outline of the double-articulation model as a background, and second the outline of the system, and at last some discussion.
Background
In linguistics, it is an important issue to identify the unit of language to understand language as an object of science. In the same way, I think the identifying the unit of visual art is useful to develop concepts about art education. The concept of a linguistic unit is proposed by F.Saussure and developed by A.Martinet.
Martinet found linguistic units both in words and sounds. The unit of a word is called semantic unit. The unit of sound is called distinctive unit. This is the theory of double-articulation. This theory is to explain economy of language. Instead of infinite words, the number of sounds in natural language is less than one hundred. If the language does not have this double unit system, we must have an ability to use many thousands of sounds. The theory of double-articulation can explain the fact that the man, whose physical ability is limited uses limitless meanings.
C. Levi-Strauss adapted the theory of double-articulation to visual art. He compared figures in painting as semantic units and shapes and colors as distinctive units. So, he pointed out figurative paintings are similar to language (Figure 1).
There are many criticisms of Levi-Strauss's double-articulation model. For example, P.Francasel denied it for two reasons. First, though semantic unit's meaning is clear, figure's meaning is unclear. That is, a figure can't be regarded as semantic unit because it can accept many meanings. The second, the number of shapes or colors is limitless while the number of distinctive units is limited. In other words, shape and color can't be regarded as distinctive units because they can not be in a small number unit system.
The controversy around the double-articulation model continues now. Anyway, most of the criticisms are from the viewpoint of appreciating art works. However, It is possible to say that double-articulation model can explain the process of visual art expression, as is the same way of explaining the process of language expression. In the case of drawing, for example, there are not many number of lines that a man can control. If a man has a personal characteristic of drawing, a limitless number of lines which he draws derived from the limited number of his own line's units. However, he can draw a limitless number of figures. So, from the viewpoint of understanding the process of producing visual art, the double-articulation model seems to be very useful (Figure 2).
U.Eco is one of the critics of the double-articulation model of visual art. However, he said that there are a few possibilities to prove double-articulation model of visual art by carefully classifying a great deal of data. Also, he suggested using a computer to simulate the units.
Outline of the System
The way to analyze drawing, in general, is just to look at the drawing. The amount and quality of analyzed data does not help in understanding drawing with the idea of a system or a unit. The merits to of using the computer to analyze drawings are to be able to get a huge data as well as time sequenced and to access the data at random, or to refer to the sequential data quickly. Also, the huge data can be analyzed in a very short time.
In this system, you can use the digitizer to put data into computer. The electronic pen for drawing is able to recognize pen pressure and to be used with a common pen cartridge. You can draw with this pen as usual. The computer's tasks are to control the digitizer, to record data, to transform them and to analyze them. The purposes of using the VCR are to get visual data for backup and to get sound data for protocol.
I made the application programs with the BASIC. They are divided into the process of collecting data and analyzing it. These programs can work on MS-DOS with simple transformation (Figure 3).
The processes of getting data are the following.
The computer sends the command for the digitizer so as to return the data of the pen point every 0.05 second. The interval is depend on the ability of the computer. The data that should be returned is the position (in 400 square mesh) and the pressure (in 60 steps) of the pen. The resolution of image is 0.76mm. There is not so large difference between real drawing and simulated drawing.
The data is once recorded on main memory. You can record data over 20 minutes.
After the drawing, the data is transformed into lines and recorded as sequential files in disk memory.
The processes of analyzing are the following.
- The whole image is re-drawn by 6 colored lines in the order of making strokes.
- The whole image is re drawn by 6 colored lines about velocity.
- The whole image is re drawn by 7 colored lines about acceleration.
- The whole image is re drawn by 6 colored lines about pen pressure(Figure 4).
The bar graphs of all lines in a drawing that show used second, length, maximum velocity and maximum pen pressure are displayed in the scales of making strokes.
On the subject of a line that you select in a drawing, the digital data of used second, length, maximum velocity, maximum acceleration and maximum pen pressure are displayed with the whole image of the drawing. In this whole image of the drawing, the selected line is colored green.
On the subject of a line that you select in a drawing, the line graphs that show degrees of pen point movement, velocity, acceleration and pen pressure are displayed. You can choose one of these processes quickly.
Discussion
As you know this report does not show the concrete image of each unit of visual art. However, the following appeared by using this system. In the example of a drawing, you can divide the same formed lines into two groups. These lines are vertical, short and straight. The lines of one group end with decreasing velocity, and the other end with increasing velocity. The lines of the first group are parts of a stalk of a rose, and seconds are outlines of a bottle. So you can see that in the example the two similar lines form is completely different from each other. Moreover, you can see that the velocity transition should be a rather relevant feature to identify distinctive units of drawing.
To identify each unit is to determine whether the features make a complete unit or not. While I'm now considering what feature and what scale can make distinctive units of drawing, it is necessary to continue to develop the computer system.
Present Conditions and Perspectives in Art Class : Educational Reform During the Period from 1977 to 2001 in Japan
Mr. Hideshi UDA
Associate Professor of Fine Arts Education, Faculty of Education, Nara University of Education Takabatake-cho, Nara City, Nara Prefecture, 630-8528, Japan udah@nara-edu.ac.jp
* This paper was presented at the 31st World INSEA conferenc, New York (August 22, 2002)
Key word: Recent educational reform in Japan, Centralism, Course of Study by the Ministry of Education, Comparative view points between Japan and America, Playful Art Study in elementary school, Appreciation study in elementary and lower secondary schools, Integrated Studies.
1. Introduction
This paper focuses upon the educational reform underway after 1977 in Japan. Japanese educational system has been centralized by the Ministry of Education which has considerable influence upon teachers in public schools. In the last two decades, the Ministry of Education suggested teaching guidelines and methods in art lessons. And this educational reform brought both achievement and critical problems in art education. The last two decades will be divided into two chronological stages as follows for the research convenience.
1,The Period from 1977(Showa 52ed) to 1988(Showa 63rd): Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1977(the 5th Course of Study after World War II). Playful Art Study (Zoukei-asobi) got started in the lower grades of elementary school, which includes playing with materials and integrated expression based on the experiences.
2,The Period from 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th): Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1989(the 6th Course of Study). And new Course of Study was announced in 1998(the 7th Course of Study) and it was put into effect in April 2002. Playful Art and appreciation study are emphasized in the both Course of Studies.
The purpose of this research is to analyze this reform and to make basic resources for proposing good annual teaching programs for students. The overview of this research runs as follows: to clarify both achievement and critical problems of Playful Art Study, and to consider the relation of Fine Arts study to Integrated Studies (Life Environment Studies and "Period for Integrated Study").
2.Educational administration in Japan
: Comparison between educational system of Japan and that of the U.S.A.
2.1.Centralized educational system
Contrary to the U.S.A where Local administration has independent education system, Japanese educational system is centralized. All Japanese prefectures use authorized textbooks under Course of Study by Ministry of Education. Toku (1997) stated this situation as follows 1).
It is unusual that all prefectures use governmentally authorized textbooks under nation- wide curriculum by Ministry of Education as Japan. Many nations have complicated background in culture, race, religion and politics. So it is impossible and even dangerous that those nations have centralized educational systems. Each state (and district) has different cultural backgrounds, so it is practical that they have independent educational systems under local administrations. There are major ideas and thoughts in art Education, but each state (and district) interprets them differently in the U.S.A. Each teacher practices art education based on various curriculums.
Japanese educational system is exceptional and unique in the world, so we present this system at first.
2.2. Course of Study by Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture.
The Course of Study is revised by the Ministry of Educationabout every 10 years to meet changing needs and conditions. After World War II, the Course of Study was officially announced 7 times. In recent 25years, the Course of Study was revised in 1977(the 5th Course of Study), 1989(the 6th Course of Study), and 1998 (the 7th Course of Study). The Minister of Education says that the Course of Study is not a law, but a guideline for teachers. But this guideline restricts many teachers' behaviors. This is a norm for teachers in public schools.
Ministry of Education conveys new Course of Study to Prefectural Board of Education, and supervisors of Prefectural Board convey it to Municipal Board in the training meeting. And teachers accept it throughout the country. This is, as it were, conveyance of the will and ideas of those who govern to those who are governed.
Private company edits the textbook based on the Course of Study. And the Textbook Authorization Research Council judges the suitability of each textbook and recommends suitable ones to the Minister of Education. The Minister authorizes textbooks on the basis of the Council's recommendations. In compulsory education, municipal boards of education decide which textbooks to adopt on the basis of the teachers' recommendations. The textbooks are provided free of charge while the students are at the level of compulsory education.
In the next three tables (Table 1-3), we show change of the overall objectives and the standard number of yearly school hours in these three Revised Course of Studies. The overall objectives are not changed so much, and they have the outline as follows. 1), To educate student through two fields, aesthetic expression and appreciation .2), To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities. 3), To make student enjoy the pleasure of the aesthetic expression. 4), To make student cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an enriched sensibility in the Fine Arts.
The standard number of yearly school hours was decreased sharply, because the five- day- week school system and Integrated Studies were introduced in the 7th Course of Study 2).
In the 5th Course of Study, all grades of elementary school had two school hours (90 minutes) in a week. In the 7th Course of Study, there are two school hours (90 minutes) in lower grades, 1.7 school hours (about 77 minutes) in middle grades, 1.4 school hours (about 64 minutes) in upper grades. From 1st grade to 6th grade, total number of yearly school hours was reduced by 14.4%. In the 5th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicraft accounted for 7.2% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities. However in the 7th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicrafts accounts for 6.7% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities.
In a week of the 5th Course of Study, there were two school hours (100 minutes) in 7th and 8th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in the 9th grade. In 7th Course of Study, there are about 1.3 school hours (64 minutes) in the 7th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in 8th and 9th grade. From 7th grade to 9th grade, total number of yearly school hours was reduced by 34.3%. In the 5th Course of Study, Fine Arts accounted for 5.6% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities, but in the 7th Course of Study, Fine Arts accounts for 3.9% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities.
Present conditions of Japanese art education are very hard in number of yearly school hours. And Life Environment Studies and Integrated Studies are going to overlap with the contents of Art Study. So art teachers feel uncertain about their future. They sometimes say "Art Study might not be able to survive as subject in the next Course of Study". But Toku (1997) stated that most American art teaches work in precarious position. She says that her condition is harder than Japanese teacher 3). This is because that school subject should have practical aims and values that everyone recognize in the U.S.A. So American society can't permit ambiguous expression such as "fostering an enriched sensibility" in the Japanese fine Arts. People tend to expect that art study should make student acquire something practical.
Ms. Toku taught Fine Art in a private catholic school (St. Matthew School) in the State of Illinois. She had art class two days in a week, but art class was very short time. She taught 25minutes from 1st grade to 3rd grade, 30minutes in 4th grade, 40minutes in 5th and 6th grade, 45minutes in 7th and 8th grade. She had to have practical aim and teach the least contents effectively. Compared with the condition of art education in the U.S.A., ours is fortunate at least as an educational system. Getting the information from foreign countries, we have to clarify the status of art study more in the whole curriculum.
Table 1
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1977 (the 5th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in lower secondary schools: To make student develop the ability in aesthetic expression and appreciation, enjoy the pleasure of creative activities, cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2. Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is six-day-week system. One week has 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes） for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary Schools. In 7th grade and 8th grade, we have 2 school hours（100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 9th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
Table 2
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1989 (the 6th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in Elementary Schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in Lower Secondary Schools: To make student develop the ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of creative activities, cultivating an appreciation of art, and fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2.Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is 5.5 day-week-system. (In a month, 1st and 3rd week have 6 days. And 2nd and 4th week have 5 days.) 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7th grade, we have 2 school hours （100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8th grade, we have 1-2 school hours（50-100minutes） for Fine Arts in a week. In 9th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
Table 3
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1998 (the 7th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student enjoy the pleasure of the aesthetic expression, cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in lower secondary Schools: To make student develop basic ability, enjoy the pleasure of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby cultivating an appreciation of art, and fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2,Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is five-day-week system. One week has 23-27 school hours in elementary school and 28 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. In 1st grade and 2nd grade, we have 2 school hours（90minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 3rd grade and 4th grade, we have 1.7 school hours（about 77minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 5th grade and 6th grade, we have 1.4 school hours（about 64minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7th grade, we have 1.3 school hours（about 64minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8th grade and 9th grade, we have one school hour （50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
3. Recent 25years in art education
3.1. From 1977(Showa 52nd) to 1988(Syowa 63rd)
Japanese high-degree economic growth occupied the attention of the whole world around 1980(Showa 55th). In those days, Japanese education reached a peak in system and consciousness of the people 4). 94% of the students advanced to upper secondary school and 38% of students advanced to university. Junior high school Students rioted against teachers in 1980(Showa 55th). Since this time, there have been dangerous phenomena such as school violence, autism, school refusal, bullying, escaping from study, or collapse of elementary class. Centralism and standardization of education were criticized by Ad Hoc Council on Education. This Council was established in 1984(Showa 59th). And it proposed that educational system should introduce liberalization and individualization under private management. This concept has been argued under educational ease of restrictions.
Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1977 (Showa 52nd). Playful Art Study (Zoukei-asobi) was introduced in the lower grades of elementary school. Playful Art Study has playing with materials, integrated expression by whole body and senses. This activity emphasizes that students have desire to express themselves, so it can not be defined such as painting, sculpture, design, craft and so on. The 4th Course of Study was framed systematically, so introduction to Playful Art Study dramatically change the keynote of Handicraft and Drawing. This change was forerunner of other subjects in School, because Ministry of Education proposed new viewpoint of scholastic ability, studying independently and establishing Life Environment Studies in the next Course of Study (1989).
In the 7th Course of Study (1998), Playful Art was spread in all grades of elementary school, because this study was in line with the new viewpoint of scholastic ability. In the U.S.A., DBAE (Discipline -Based Art Education) proposed that art study as discipline should survive in school art. In contrast, Japanese Ministry of Education and art teachers proposed that art study as Playful Art should survive in school art. In Japanese art education history, there are three trends centered on student as Table 4. Playful Art Study guarantees more freedom for student than Free-Drawing Education (Non-drawing from a copy) in the latter half of Taisho period (1918-1926) and Creative art education immediately after World War II. Naka (2000), an art theory scholar, called this trend "super-creative art education", guaranteeing more freedom of student 5). Kaneko (1998), an art education scholar, called this period underway after 1977, "aesthetic art education period" 6).
When we think alternative art education, a problem is how we grasp Playful Art that took root in today's school. This is because that this activity overlaps with trends such as mixed media and multimedia in contemporary Arts. They have the possibility to spread aesthetic expression and appreciation, but they bring us ambiguous contents and method in art education. Because students live in the world of video information, it is difficult to select expression and appreciation contents severely under the limited school hours.
Some teachers had made objections against those trends and proposed distinct methods. Matsumoto (1975) shows painting by using only three primary colors and Sakai (1989) shows simple method in drawing and composition and so on. Many young and middle-aged teachers support those methods. In the appreciation study, those teachers use analytic criticism introduced from the U.S.A. Teachers use analytic criticism in Japanese Language class at first, then they use it in art class 7).
Since the period from the latter half of 1960's to the 1970's, teacher training Universities have established graduate courses of art education. Tokyo Gakugei University established such course in 1968 and Osaka Kyoiku Univerity in 1975. Researchers of art education were rained in these courses and then they and their teachers established the Academic Society in 1982. These researches have introduced the thoughts and practices from the U.S.A. and Germany and so on.
Table 4
Three art education trends centered on student
3.2.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th)
3.2.1.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 1997(Heisei 9th)
The 6th Course of Study was officially announced in 1989 under the influence of cognitive psychology and world educational reform 8). This Course of Study had appearances of Life Environment Studies, slogan such as new viewpoint of scholastic ability and studying independently. Playful Art Study was expanded in the middle grades of elementary school. And appreciation study was emphasized in it under Curriculum Council Report (1987) 9).
This report showed reformed point, that is, teacher should make students appreciate international affairs, and cultivate attitude of respecting culture and tradition in their own nation. The 6th Course of Study said that teachers have appreciation activities without expression in the upper grades of elementary school, and have appreciation activities such as art and human-being in lower secondary school.
Art museums had started to stress on department of education and diffusion in the latter half of1980's. They have introduced educational events such as gallery talk, worksheet, workshop from America and Europe. These programs and educational resources had been published since then 10). Study group of museum education was organized by researchers in 1991, and next year (1992) was peak in zest of museum education. International symposium was held in Tokyo and Yokohama. The subject of the symposium was museum education in Germany and other countries. After this, museums have tried to practice educational programs and they have taken root throughout the country.
The works, introduced to art world, have been published in the first half of 1990's. They were published for general public, so these books didn't always need training in the art history. There have been a calm boom of artistic appreciation since then 11). For children and beginners, picture books of masterpieces and art history with Manga (carton) have been
edited and published by art history scholars 12). During this time, art education researchers have introduced to Japan new ideas such as DBAE (Discipline-Based Art Education) and related thoughts. "Educating Artistic Vision" by E. W. Eisner was translated into Japanese and published (1987) and W. D. Greer's idea was interpreted in a Japanese art education journal 13). Teachers and researchers who had made objections against Ministry of Education's policy, had quoted Eisner's Artistic Vision and Greer's four disciplines. They had proposed distinct and rational methods survive art study in school. These teachers didn't necessarily have approved Playful Art Study and some of them had denied Playful Art strongly.
But dispute over DBAE subjects was introduced at the same time. It is very important for Japan and Asian countries to dispute about forcing the value of Western art on student tacitly, and to consider standardized materials and teacher-proof curriculum.
3.2.2.The period from 1998(Heisei 10th) to 2001(Heisei 13th)
The 7th Course of Study was officially announced in December 1998 and had put into effect in April 2002(In Japan, School year starts in April). Ministry of Education proposed lifelong education society in the Course of Study and had introduced a five-day school week since April 2002. Introducing some new studies and activities in the Course of Study, new contents were tried by teachers in the transitional period from 1998 to 2001.
Playful Art Study was spread in all grades of elementary school as previously stated. And secondary school's Course of Study introduced new artistic expression such as Manga (cartoon), illustration, photograph, video, computer graphics and so on. Appreciation study pays attention to Asian art as Western art. There are multiple and various trends in art class today. And Integrated Studies was newly introduced in elementary and secondary schools. In this Studies, students are expected to study independently and seek to find the answer by themselves. Each school is now struggling to obtain achievement in Integrated Studies.
4. Playful Art Study in elementary school
4.1.What is playful Art Study?
In the Course of Study (1977), Playful Art Study was introduced to Drawing and Handicraft in 1st grade and 2nd grade. This Playful Art was expected to relate to kindergarten's formative expression activities, namely, children express and make something as they play in there. This study's aim ran as follows: to make student express independently as they play, to enjoy enough the pleasure of the artistic expression. Teacher should expect student to hit upon ideas and thoughts independently, not to express for desirable goal at first. Teacher lays stress on student 's expressive process, not outcomes (works) 14).
Considering Playful Art, we need to think about background of art class in Japan. Traditionally, Japanese teacher set narrow and focused goal, so students painted same model and theme. Teacher made students paint works of high quality, but they are standardized works. Teacher made students be impressed by accomplishment and success, so students had strong will of next expression. Kitao (1991), a cognitive psychologist proposed Two Dimension Model for Teaching Method and Goal as Figure 1 15). He showed four main types in teaching method and goal. The axis of ordinates shows the axis of teaching goal. The more the point stands away from the origin, the more teaching goal gets free. And the axis of abscissa shows the axis of teaching method. The more the point stands away from the origin, the more teaching method gets free.
Now we apply this Two dimension Model to teaching art. A type has closed goal and method such as drawing same model under distinct goal. But even if this type, each student may have delicate different goal in art class. B type has free goal and closed method such as imaginative drawing under same materials and theme. Students start planning under same materials and theme, but they expressed individual theme finally. C type has closed goal and free method such as programmatic study. Teacher presents two or three materials at the beginning of the term, each student plans individual program and finishes the works until the end of the term. They can have choice of making order, but they have to arrive distinct goal. Teacher must present distinct self-evaluation items for students. D type has free goal and method such as free inquiry and expression in art. Students seek their theme and material under their individual interest and will. Kitao said that there were many A type-classes in Japan as compared with America and Europe. Teachers who proposed Playful Art Study, criticized A type-classes. They proposed art study based on Playful Art Study, so they tried to increase B or D type-classes.
There are many painting competition for children and students in preschool, elementary and secondary schools. Some Major competitions are supported by Ministry of Education, and teacher make efforts to get first prize, Prize of Minister of Education. Of course these competitions had merit for students, but had demerit, too. In those days, teachers tended to devote themselves to get prizes for honor of themselves, schools and districts. (Today, some of the teachers teach Handicraft and drawing in this way.) Teachers' excessive teaching sometimes ruined student' expressive will and zest in lower grades of elementary school. Ministry of Education and some teacher established Playful Art Study against these tendencies based on painting competition.
Teaching Plan 1 is quoted from Teaching Resources by Ministry of Education 16). As previously stated, Playful Art Study lays stress on independent expressions and dose not expect students to have distinct goal at first (goal free). And teacher's role is supporting student's activities, preparing various materials and setting activity space. Course of Study denies teacher's excessive teaching strongly. These activities produce many work styles at last, for example, painting, relief, installation, environmental art, performance art and so on. Under the control of Ministry of Education, teacher developed and researched teaching materials for Playful Art in university-attached schools and experimental public schools. These leading researches and practices were spread all through the country.
Figure 1 Two Dimension Model for Teaching Method and Goal (Kitao,1991)
4.2.Present conditions and perspectives in Playful Art Study
Playful Art Study has brought achievement and critical problems in recent art education practice. One educational practice has two faces, so we present both of them, namely, achievement and critical problems of Playful Art at the same time.
This study's idea put the brakes on teacher's excessive teaching for painting competition. Once again, we had started to have a point of view of aesthetic expression by the child. These ideas had a role to destroy teacher's scholastic ability in Drawing and Handicrafts. But this strong zest and reform movement have become stereotyped after 25years. We occasionally see stereotyped Playful Art Study in recent elementary school class.
This study extended contents of art education field, based on drawing and paining before. This Playful Art Study has broad fields such as playing with materials, integrated expression, mixing various media and so on. So teacher has observed Arts in living life and paid attention to modern and contemporary art. On the other hand, representative drawing has been treated lightly in the Course of Study. Because Playful Art lays stresses on imaginative and creative drawing, representative drawing has been losing standing point in a limited school hours. Current problem is that student has little time for basis of color, treating drawing brush, and composition and so on. Some students want to have more time for representative drawing in upper grades of elementary school.
Since this study has radical ideas and theories such as self -expression, and social constructivism, many teachers can not understand these thoughts enough. These teachers criticize that Playful Art Study has ambiguous scholastic ability and strongly depends on will in student. They sometimes say that teacher must give up art class if students don' t have will and zest for expression.
Individual student's interest and idea are very important in Playful Art Study, so it is effective that one teacher teaches proper number of students. But this study doesn't fit for Japanese educational system or class style yet. There are a few teachers who teach only Drawing and Handicrafts professionally in Japan. Most teachers take charge of their classes, teach many subjects except for a few subjects (Music and Homemaking and so on). They are very busy to prepare many subjects and classroom work, so they have no time for gathering materials and researching Playful Art. And there are 40-pupils-per-class system except for a few cases. So it is sometimes difficult that teacher supports expressive wills in all students.
In addition to the previous statements, introduction of Integrated Studies has influenced playful Art and art class. Next we will consider the relation of art class to Integrated Studies.
Relation of art class to Integrated Studies (Life Environment Studies and "Period for Integrated Study")
5.1.What is "Period for Integrated Study"?
Establishing Integrated Studies was reported by Central Council for Education and Curriculum Council. So the 7th Course of Study (1998) established "Period for Integrated Study" from 3rd grade to upper secondary schools 17). The 6th Course of Study (1989) established Life Environment Studies for 1st and 2nd grade. So we have Integrated Studies both elementary and secondary schools now. In the new curriculum, these studies should have important role for cultivating the "zest for living" such as ability to learn and think independently. The 7th Course of Study says that overall objectives of "Period for Integrated Study" run as follows: to cultivate nature and ability of studying independently (finding out own theme, considering, seeking and solving own theme independently), and to foster attitude of seeking own life style.
For example, themes of these Integrated Studies run as follows: (1) crossed themes beyond the subjects and integrated themes such as understanding international affairs, information, environment, welfare and health, (2), themes based on individual interest, (3) characteristic themes based on the district and the school. And methods of teaching of these studies run as follows: (1) learning by experiences such as natural experience, volunteer activities, (2) practices such as observation, experiment, field trip, research, presentation, debate, making and product, leaning by solving problem.
5.2.Relation of art study to Integrated Studies
Now we should consider the relation of art study to these Integrated Studies, because the Integrated Studies are similar to art study in objectives and contents. It has been a main purpose of art education after World War II that student finds out his/her own theme of expression and express independently. The Integrated Studies and other subjects have approached art study in recent 10years.So we should have good curriculum that consider the relation of two studies. For example, students experience various materials in Playful Art Study, next they research materials such as sand and clay in Integrated Studies. And musical instrument, color study, and environmental art have much possibility of Integrated Studies. Further we should present original value of art study that differs from other field studies at the same time. If we can't present original value, Ministry of Education and our society might expel art study from school.
We are now researching art study as required subject and showing the Integrated Studies plan based on art field. Concerning the Integrated Studies based on art field, we proposed as follows 18) : poster, papermaking, plaything, making costume, making huge thing, animation, making totem pole in park, art event in school festival, research on advertisement company, workshop by artist. Artistic appreciation has much possibility in the Integrated Studies based on art, so we are now researching language and criticism between art and Japanese language. And Chapman's art card (1988) 19) and German gymnasium art class 20) tell us importance of appreciation. We can study these educations as appreciation study at first, and study as Integrated Studies at next time. Because it is education for international and cross-cultural understanding that we study foreign appreciation study. We can talk and research the problem such as cultural difference and acculturation.
The Integrated Studies has just started in April 2002, so it is no time to state achievement and critical problems. We are sure of possibilities in art study and continue our research in art education.
6. Conclusion: Japanese educational reform and art eductionin recent 25 years
The Author traced Japanese educational reform and art education history in recent 25 years. Art teacher and Ministry of Education have reformed idea and method in class. Now Ministry of Education is trying to shift the stress from school subjects to the Integrated Studies. From this history, we can say several points as follows.
Playful Art Study was established in elementary school 25 years ago. This study has proposed new ideas and changed teachers' consciousness and culture on educational practice. But this study has brought critical problems such as decreasing representative drawing and art theories at the same time. This history suggests us that we should have balance between independent expression and teaching art. We should respect both values in school education.
We should consider relation of art class to the Integrated Studies and respect both educational values. It is important that we have meaningful curriculum for student and make art study useful to the Integrated Studies. The Integrated Studies can also be planned to be useful for Art expression and appreciation.
Art appreciation study is very useful for the Integrated Studies, so we should develop teaching materials for art appreciation positively. Art appreciation study will make us seek language, criticism, our culture, systems in art museum, life-long study society and so on.
We need to reform educational system and administration. We should realize proper number of students in a class and prepare computer and art room for creative activities. And we need to set up in-service education enough for studying Playful Art and art appreciation.
Okazaki (2000) stated comparison of Japanese educational reform and American one as follows 21). There is striking contrast between Japanese reform and American one. Symbol of the Japanese reform is establishing "Period for Integrated Study" (1998) under decrease of subjects hours. And American reform symbol is establishing subject standard strictly such as The National Visual Arts Standard (1994). Okazaki used metaphors of mirror to explain the relation of two countries.
Now we have to gather proper and well-timed information from the world. If it were not for proper information, art education could not survive in Japan. It was misfortune for students. The Author will continue to research art education history and construct alternative education in the 21st century.
Notes and References
Associate Professor of Fine Arts Education, Faculty of Education, Nara University of Education Takabatake-cho, Nara City, Nara Prefecture, 630-8528, Japan udah@nara-edu.ac.jp
* This paper was presented at the 31st World INSEA conferenc, New York (August 22, 2002)
Key word: Recent educational reform in Japan, Centralism, Course of Study by the Ministry of Education, Comparative view points between Japan and America, Playful Art Study in elementary school, Appreciation study in elementary and lower secondary schools, Integrated Studies.
1. Introduction
This paper focuses upon the educational reform underway after 1977 in Japan. Japanese educational system has been centralized by the Ministry of Education which has considerable influence upon teachers in public schools. In the last two decades, the Ministry of Education suggested teaching guidelines and methods in art lessons. And this educational reform brought both achievement and critical problems in art education. The last two decades will be divided into two chronological stages as follows for the research convenience.
1,The Period from 1977(Showa 52ed) to 1988(Showa 63rd): Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1977(the 5th Course of Study after World War II). Playful Art Study (Zoukei-asobi) got started in the lower grades of elementary school, which includes playing with materials and integrated expression based on the experiences.
2,The Period from 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th): Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1989(the 6th Course of Study). And new Course of Study was announced in 1998(the 7th Course of Study) and it was put into effect in April 2002. Playful Art and appreciation study are emphasized in the both Course of Studies.
The purpose of this research is to analyze this reform and to make basic resources for proposing good annual teaching programs for students. The overview of this research runs as follows: to clarify both achievement and critical problems of Playful Art Study, and to consider the relation of Fine Arts study to Integrated Studies (Life Environment Studies and "Period for Integrated Study").
2.Educational administration in Japan
: Comparison between educational system of Japan and that of the U.S.A.
2.1.Centralized educational system
Contrary to the U.S.A where Local administration has independent education system, Japanese educational system is centralized. All Japanese prefectures use authorized textbooks under Course of Study by Ministry of Education. Toku (1997) stated this situation as follows 1).
It is unusual that all prefectures use governmentally authorized textbooks under nation- wide curriculum by Ministry of Education as Japan. Many nations have complicated background in culture, race, religion and politics. So it is impossible and even dangerous that those nations have centralized educational systems. Each state (and district) has different cultural backgrounds, so it is practical that they have independent educational systems under local administrations. There are major ideas and thoughts in art Education, but each state (and district) interprets them differently in the U.S.A. Each teacher practices art education based on various curriculums.
Japanese educational system is exceptional and unique in the world, so we present this system at first.
2.2. Course of Study by Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture.
The Course of Study is revised by the Ministry of Educationabout every 10 years to meet changing needs and conditions. After World War II, the Course of Study was officially announced 7 times. In recent 25years, the Course of Study was revised in 1977(the 5th Course of Study), 1989(the 6th Course of Study), and 1998 (the 7th Course of Study). The Minister of Education says that the Course of Study is not a law, but a guideline for teachers. But this guideline restricts many teachers' behaviors. This is a norm for teachers in public schools.
Ministry of Education conveys new Course of Study to Prefectural Board of Education, and supervisors of Prefectural Board convey it to Municipal Board in the training meeting. And teachers accept it throughout the country. This is, as it were, conveyance of the will and ideas of those who govern to those who are governed.
Private company edits the textbook based on the Course of Study. And the Textbook Authorization Research Council judges the suitability of each textbook and recommends suitable ones to the Minister of Education. The Minister authorizes textbooks on the basis of the Council's recommendations. In compulsory education, municipal boards of education decide which textbooks to adopt on the basis of the teachers' recommendations. The textbooks are provided free of charge while the students are at the level of compulsory education.
In the next three tables (Table 1-3), we show change of the overall objectives and the standard number of yearly school hours in these three Revised Course of Studies. The overall objectives are not changed so much, and they have the outline as follows. 1), To educate student through two fields, aesthetic expression and appreciation .2), To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities. 3), To make student enjoy the pleasure of the aesthetic expression. 4), To make student cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an enriched sensibility in the Fine Arts.
The standard number of yearly school hours was decreased sharply, because the five- day- week school system and Integrated Studies were introduced in the 7th Course of Study 2).
In the 5th Course of Study, all grades of elementary school had two school hours (90 minutes) in a week. In the 7th Course of Study, there are two school hours (90 minutes) in lower grades, 1.7 school hours (about 77 minutes) in middle grades, 1.4 school hours (about 64 minutes) in upper grades. From 1st grade to 6th grade, total number of yearly school hours was reduced by 14.4%. In the 5th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicraft accounted for 7.2% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities. However in the 7th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicrafts accounts for 6.7% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities.
In a week of the 5th Course of Study, there were two school hours (100 minutes) in 7th and 8th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in the 9th grade. In 7th Course of Study, there are about 1.3 school hours (64 minutes) in the 7th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in 8th and 9th grade. From 7th grade to 9th grade, total number of yearly school hours was reduced by 34.3%. In the 5th Course of Study, Fine Arts accounted for 5.6% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities, but in the 7th Course of Study, Fine Arts accounts for 3.9% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities.
Present conditions of Japanese art education are very hard in number of yearly school hours. And Life Environment Studies and Integrated Studies are going to overlap with the contents of Art Study. So art teachers feel uncertain about their future. They sometimes say "Art Study might not be able to survive as subject in the next Course of Study". But Toku (1997) stated that most American art teaches work in precarious position. She says that her condition is harder than Japanese teacher 3). This is because that school subject should have practical aims and values that everyone recognize in the U.S.A. So American society can't permit ambiguous expression such as "fostering an enriched sensibility" in the Japanese fine Arts. People tend to expect that art study should make student acquire something practical.
Ms. Toku taught Fine Art in a private catholic school (St. Matthew School) in the State of Illinois. She had art class two days in a week, but art class was very short time. She taught 25minutes from 1st grade to 3rd grade, 30minutes in 4th grade, 40minutes in 5th and 6th grade, 45minutes in 7th and 8th grade. She had to have practical aim and teach the least contents effectively. Compared with the condition of art education in the U.S.A., ours is fortunate at least as an educational system. Getting the information from foreign countries, we have to clarify the status of art study more in the whole curriculum.
Table 1
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1977 (the 5th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in lower secondary schools: To make student develop the ability in aesthetic expression and appreciation, enjoy the pleasure of creative activities, cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2. Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is six-day-week system. One week has 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes） for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary Schools. In 7th grade and 8th grade, we have 2 school hours（100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 9th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
Table 2
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1989 (the 6th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in Elementary Schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in Lower Secondary Schools: To make student develop the ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of creative activities, cultivating an appreciation of art, and fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2.Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is 5.5 day-week-system. (In a month, 1st and 3rd week have 6 days. And 2nd and 4th week have 5 days.) 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7th grade, we have 2 school hours （100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8th grade, we have 1-2 school hours（50-100minutes） for Fine Arts in a week. In 9th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
Table 3
Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1998 (the 7th Course of Study)
1,Overall Objectives
Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student enjoy the pleasure of the aesthetic expression, cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby fostering an enriched sensibility.
Fine Arts in lower secondary Schools: To make student develop basic ability, enjoy the pleasure of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby cultivating an appreciation of art, and fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.
2,Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools
Note:
One year has 34 weeks in 1st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2nd grade to 9th grade.
There is five-day-week system. One week has 23-27 school hours in elementary school and 28 school hours in lower secondary schools
One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. In 1st grade and 2nd grade, we have 2 school hours（90minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 3rd grade and 4th grade, we have 1.7 school hours（about 77minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 5th grade and 6th grade, we have 1.4 school hours（about 64minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.
One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7th grade, we have 1.3 school hours（about 64minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8th grade and 9th grade, we have one school hour （50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.
3. Recent 25years in art education
3.1. From 1977(Showa 52nd) to 1988(Syowa 63rd)
Japanese high-degree economic growth occupied the attention of the whole world around 1980(Showa 55th). In those days, Japanese education reached a peak in system and consciousness of the people 4). 94% of the students advanced to upper secondary school and 38% of students advanced to university. Junior high school Students rioted against teachers in 1980(Showa 55th). Since this time, there have been dangerous phenomena such as school violence, autism, school refusal, bullying, escaping from study, or collapse of elementary class. Centralism and standardization of education were criticized by Ad Hoc Council on Education. This Council was established in 1984(Showa 59th). And it proposed that educational system should introduce liberalization and individualization under private management. This concept has been argued under educational ease of restrictions.
Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1977 (Showa 52nd). Playful Art Study (Zoukei-asobi) was introduced in the lower grades of elementary school. Playful Art Study has playing with materials, integrated expression by whole body and senses. This activity emphasizes that students have desire to express themselves, so it can not be defined such as painting, sculpture, design, craft and so on. The 4th Course of Study was framed systematically, so introduction to Playful Art Study dramatically change the keynote of Handicraft and Drawing. This change was forerunner of other subjects in School, because Ministry of Education proposed new viewpoint of scholastic ability, studying independently and establishing Life Environment Studies in the next Course of Study (1989).
In the 7th Course of Study (1998), Playful Art was spread in all grades of elementary school, because this study was in line with the new viewpoint of scholastic ability. In the U.S.A., DBAE (Discipline -Based Art Education) proposed that art study as discipline should survive in school art. In contrast, Japanese Ministry of Education and art teachers proposed that art study as Playful Art should survive in school art. In Japanese art education history, there are three trends centered on student as Table 4. Playful Art Study guarantees more freedom for student than Free-Drawing Education (Non-drawing from a copy) in the latter half of Taisho period (1918-1926) and Creative art education immediately after World War II. Naka (2000), an art theory scholar, called this trend "super-creative art education", guaranteeing more freedom of student 5). Kaneko (1998), an art education scholar, called this period underway after 1977, "aesthetic art education period" 6).
When we think alternative art education, a problem is how we grasp Playful Art that took root in today's school. This is because that this activity overlaps with trends such as mixed media and multimedia in contemporary Arts. They have the possibility to spread aesthetic expression and appreciation, but they bring us ambiguous contents and method in art education. Because students live in the world of video information, it is difficult to select expression and appreciation contents severely under the limited school hours.
Some teachers had made objections against those trends and proposed distinct methods. Matsumoto (1975) shows painting by using only three primary colors and Sakai (1989) shows simple method in drawing and composition and so on. Many young and middle-aged teachers support those methods. In the appreciation study, those teachers use analytic criticism introduced from the U.S.A. Teachers use analytic criticism in Japanese Language class at first, then they use it in art class 7).
Since the period from the latter half of 1960's to the 1970's, teacher training Universities have established graduate courses of art education. Tokyo Gakugei University established such course in 1968 and Osaka Kyoiku Univerity in 1975. Researchers of art education were rained in these courses and then they and their teachers established the Academic Society in 1982. These researches have introduced the thoughts and practices from the U.S.A. and Germany and so on.
Table 4
Three art education trends centered on student
3.2.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th)
3.2.1.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 1997(Heisei 9th)
The 6th Course of Study was officially announced in 1989 under the influence of cognitive psychology and world educational reform 8). This Course of Study had appearances of Life Environment Studies, slogan such as new viewpoint of scholastic ability and studying independently. Playful Art Study was expanded in the middle grades of elementary school. And appreciation study was emphasized in it under Curriculum Council Report (1987) 9).
This report showed reformed point, that is, teacher should make students appreciate international affairs, and cultivate attitude of respecting culture and tradition in their own nation. The 6th Course of Study said that teachers have appreciation activities without expression in the upper grades of elementary school, and have appreciation activities such as art and human-being in lower secondary school.
Art museums had started to stress on department of education and diffusion in the latter half of1980's. They have introduced educational events such as gallery talk, worksheet, workshop from America and Europe. These programs and educational resources had been published since then 10). Study group of museum education was organized by researchers in 1991, and next year (1992) was peak in zest of museum education. International symposium was held in Tokyo and Yokohama. The subject of the symposium was museum education in Germany and other countries. After this, museums have tried to practice educational programs and they have taken root throughout the country.
The works, introduced to art world, have been published in the first half of 1990's. They were published for general public, so these books didn't always need training in the art history. There have been a calm boom of artistic appreciation since then 11). For children and beginners, picture books of masterpieces and art history with Manga (carton) have been
edited and published by art history scholars 12). During this time, art education researchers have introduced to Japan new ideas such as DBAE (Discipline-Based Art Education) and related thoughts. "Educating Artistic Vision" by E. W. Eisner was translated into Japanese and published (1987) and W. D. Greer's idea was interpreted in a Japanese art education journal 13). Teachers and researchers who had made objections against Ministry of Education's policy, had quoted Eisner's Artistic Vision and Greer's four disciplines. They had proposed distinct and rational methods survive art study in school. These teachers didn't necessarily have approved Playful Art Study and some of them had denied Playful Art strongly.
But dispute over DBAE subjects was introduced at the same time. It is very important for Japan and Asian countries to dispute about forcing the value of Western art on student tacitly, and to consider standardized materials and teacher-proof curriculum.
3.2.2.The period from 1998(Heisei 10th) to 2001(Heisei 13th)
The 7th Course of Study was officially announced in December 1998 and had put into effect in April 2002(In Japan, School year starts in April). Ministry of Education proposed lifelong education society in the Course of Study and had introduced a five-day school week since April 2002. Introducing some new studies and activities in the Course of Study, new contents were tried by teachers in the transitional period from 1998 to 2001.
Playful Art Study was spread in all grades of elementary school as previously stated. And secondary school's Course of Study introduced new artistic expression such as Manga (cartoon), illustration, photograph, video, computer graphics and so on. Appreciation study pays attention to Asian art as Western art. There are multiple and various trends in art class today. And Integrated Studies was newly introduced in elementary and secondary schools. In this Studies, students are expected to study independently and seek to find the answer by themselves. Each school is now struggling to obtain achievement in Integrated Studies.
4. Playful Art Study in elementary school
4.1.What is playful Art Study?
In the Course of Study (1977), Playful Art Study was introduced to Drawing and Handicraft in 1st grade and 2nd grade. This Playful Art was expected to relate to kindergarten's formative expression activities, namely, children express and make something as they play in there. This study's aim ran as follows: to make student express independently as they play, to enjoy enough the pleasure of the artistic expression. Teacher should expect student to hit upon ideas and thoughts independently, not to express for desirable goal at first. Teacher lays stress on student 's expressive process, not outcomes (works) 14).
Considering Playful Art, we need to think about background of art class in Japan. Traditionally, Japanese teacher set narrow and focused goal, so students painted same model and theme. Teacher made students paint works of high quality, but they are standardized works. Teacher made students be impressed by accomplishment and success, so students had strong will of next expression. Kitao (1991), a cognitive psychologist proposed Two Dimension Model for Teaching Method and Goal as Figure 1 15). He showed four main types in teaching method and goal. The axis of ordinates shows the axis of teaching goal. The more the point stands away from the origin, the more teaching goal gets free. And the axis of abscissa shows the axis of teaching method. The more the point stands away from the origin, the more teaching method gets free.
Now we apply this Two dimension Model to teaching art. A type has closed goal and method such as drawing same model under distinct goal. But even if this type, each student may have delicate different goal in art class. B type has free goal and closed method such as imaginative drawing under same materials and theme. Students start planning under same materials and theme, but they expressed individual theme finally. C type has closed goal and free method such as programmatic study. Teacher presents two or three materials at the beginning of the term, each student plans individual program and finishes the works until the end of the term. They can have choice of making order, but they have to arrive distinct goal. Teacher must present distinct self-evaluation items for students. D type has free goal and method such as free inquiry and expression in art. Students seek their theme and material under their individual interest and will. Kitao said that there were many A type-classes in Japan as compared with America and Europe. Teachers who proposed Playful Art Study, criticized A type-classes. They proposed art study based on Playful Art Study, so they tried to increase B or D type-classes.
There are many painting competition for children and students in preschool, elementary and secondary schools. Some Major competitions are supported by Ministry of Education, and teacher make efforts to get first prize, Prize of Minister of Education. Of course these competitions had merit for students, but had demerit, too. In those days, teachers tended to devote themselves to get prizes for honor of themselves, schools and districts. (Today, some of the teachers teach Handicraft and drawing in this way.) Teachers' excessive teaching sometimes ruined student' expressive will and zest in lower grades of elementary school. Ministry of Education and some teacher established Playful Art Study against these tendencies based on painting competition.
Teaching Plan 1 is quoted from Teaching Resources by Ministry of Education 16). As previously stated, Playful Art Study lays stress on independent expressions and dose not expect students to have distinct goal at first (goal free). And teacher's role is supporting student's activities, preparing various materials and setting activity space. Course of Study denies teacher's excessive teaching strongly. These activities produce many work styles at last, for example, painting, relief, installation, environmental art, performance art and so on. Under the control of Ministry of Education, teacher developed and researched teaching materials for Playful Art in university-attached schools and experimental public schools. These leading researches and practices were spread all through the country.
Figure 1 Two Dimension Model for Teaching Method and Goal (Kitao,1991)
4.2.Present conditions and perspectives in Playful Art Study
Playful Art Study has brought achievement and critical problems in recent art education practice. One educational practice has two faces, so we present both of them, namely, achievement and critical problems of Playful Art at the same time.
This study's idea put the brakes on teacher's excessive teaching for painting competition. Once again, we had started to have a point of view of aesthetic expression by the child. These ideas had a role to destroy teacher's scholastic ability in Drawing and Handicrafts. But this strong zest and reform movement have become stereotyped after 25years. We occasionally see stereotyped Playful Art Study in recent elementary school class.
This study extended contents of art education field, based on drawing and paining before. This Playful Art Study has broad fields such as playing with materials, integrated expression, mixing various media and so on. So teacher has observed Arts in living life and paid attention to modern and contemporary art. On the other hand, representative drawing has been treated lightly in the Course of Study. Because Playful Art lays stresses on imaginative and creative drawing, representative drawing has been losing standing point in a limited school hours. Current problem is that student has little time for basis of color, treating drawing brush, and composition and so on. Some students want to have more time for representative drawing in upper grades of elementary school.
Since this study has radical ideas and theories such as self -expression, and social constructivism, many teachers can not understand these thoughts enough. These teachers criticize that Playful Art Study has ambiguous scholastic ability and strongly depends on will in student. They sometimes say that teacher must give up art class if students don' t have will and zest for expression.
Individual student's interest and idea are very important in Playful Art Study, so it is effective that one teacher teaches proper number of students. But this study doesn't fit for Japanese educational system or class style yet. There are a few teachers who teach only Drawing and Handicrafts professionally in Japan. Most teachers take charge of their classes, teach many subjects except for a few subjects (Music and Homemaking and so on). They are very busy to prepare many subjects and classroom work, so they have no time for gathering materials and researching Playful Art. And there are 40-pupils-per-class system except for a few cases. So it is sometimes difficult that teacher supports expressive wills in all students.
In addition to the previous statements, introduction of Integrated Studies has influenced playful Art and art class. Next we will consider the relation of art class to Integrated Studies.
Relation of art class to Integrated Studies (Life Environment Studies and "Period for Integrated Study")
5.1.What is "Period for Integrated Study"?
Establishing Integrated Studies was reported by Central Council for Education and Curriculum Council. So the 7th Course of Study (1998) established "Period for Integrated Study" from 3rd grade to upper secondary schools 17). The 6th Course of Study (1989) established Life Environment Studies for 1st and 2nd grade. So we have Integrated Studies both elementary and secondary schools now. In the new curriculum, these studies should have important role for cultivating the "zest for living" such as ability to learn and think independently. The 7th Course of Study says that overall objectives of "Period for Integrated Study" run as follows: to cultivate nature and ability of studying independently (finding out own theme, considering, seeking and solving own theme independently), and to foster attitude of seeking own life style.
For example, themes of these Integrated Studies run as follows: (1) crossed themes beyond the subjects and integrated themes such as understanding international affairs, information, environment, welfare and health, (2), themes based on individual interest, (3) characteristic themes based on the district and the school. And methods of teaching of these studies run as follows: (1) learning by experiences such as natural experience, volunteer activities, (2) practices such as observation, experiment, field trip, research, presentation, debate, making and product, leaning by solving problem.
5.2.Relation of art study to Integrated Studies
Now we should consider the relation of art study to these Integrated Studies, because the Integrated Studies are similar to art study in objectives and contents. It has been a main purpose of art education after World War II that student finds out his/her own theme of expression and express independently. The Integrated Studies and other subjects have approached art study in recent 10years.So we should have good curriculum that consider the relation of two studies. For example, students experience various materials in Playful Art Study, next they research materials such as sand and clay in Integrated Studies. And musical instrument, color study, and environmental art have much possibility of Integrated Studies. Further we should present original value of art study that differs from other field studies at the same time. If we can't present original value, Ministry of Education and our society might expel art study from school.
We are now researching art study as required subject and showing the Integrated Studies plan based on art field. Concerning the Integrated Studies based on art field, we proposed as follows 18) : poster, papermaking, plaything, making costume, making huge thing, animation, making totem pole in park, art event in school festival, research on advertisement company, workshop by artist. Artistic appreciation has much possibility in the Integrated Studies based on art, so we are now researching language and criticism between art and Japanese language. And Chapman's art card (1988) 19) and German gymnasium art class 20) tell us importance of appreciation. We can study these educations as appreciation study at first, and study as Integrated Studies at next time. Because it is education for international and cross-cultural understanding that we study foreign appreciation study. We can talk and research the problem such as cultural difference and acculturation.
The Integrated Studies has just started in April 2002, so it is no time to state achievement and critical problems. We are sure of possibilities in art study and continue our research in art education.
6. Conclusion: Japanese educational reform and art eductionin recent 25 years
The Author traced Japanese educational reform and art education history in recent 25 years. Art teacher and Ministry of Education have reformed idea and method in class. Now Ministry of Education is trying to shift the stress from school subjects to the Integrated Studies. From this history, we can say several points as follows.
Playful Art Study was established in elementary school 25 years ago. This study has proposed new ideas and changed teachers' consciousness and culture on educational practice. But this study has brought critical problems such as decreasing representative drawing and art theories at the same time. This history suggests us that we should have balance between independent expression and teaching art. We should respect both values in school education.
We should consider relation of art class to the Integrated Studies and respect both educational values. It is important that we have meaningful curriculum for student and make art study useful to the Integrated Studies. The Integrated Studies can also be planned to be useful for Art expression and appreciation.
Art appreciation study is very useful for the Integrated Studies, so we should develop teaching materials for art appreciation positively. Art appreciation study will make us seek language, criticism, our culture, systems in art museum, life-long study society and so on.
We need to reform educational system and administration. We should realize proper number of students in a class and prepare computer and art room for creative activities. And we need to set up in-service education enough for studying Playful Art and art appreciation.
Okazaki (2000) stated comparison of Japanese educational reform and American one as follows 21). There is striking contrast between Japanese reform and American one. Symbol of the Japanese reform is establishing "Period for Integrated Study" (1998) under decrease of subjects hours. And American reform symbol is establishing subject standard strictly such as The National Visual Arts Standard (1994). Okazaki used metaphors of mirror to explain the relation of two countries.
Now we have to gather proper and well-timed information from the world. If it were not for proper information, art education could not survive in Japan. It was misfortune for students. The Author will continue to research art education history and construct alternative education in the 21st century.
Notes and References
- Toku, Masami 1997. "Nichibei no bijutu kyoiku no hikaku (Comparison of Art Education in Japan and the U.S.: Toward the 21st Century)", Art Education No.27, Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co., Japan, pp.75-76
- Web site http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e4042.html
- op.cit. Toku 1997. pp.76-83
- Sato, Manabu 1996. Kyoiku houhou gaku ( Educational Methodology), Iwanami-syoten Publishing Co., Japan.
- Naka, Sadahiko 2000."Discipline ron no yukue (Discipline in Art Education)", Bijutu kyoiku no kadai to tenbou (Problems and Prospects in Art Education) (ed. by Keitoku, Minoru), Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co., Japan, p.3
- Kaneko, Kazuo 1998. Bijutuka kyoiku no houhouron to rekishi (Method and History in Art Education), Chuokoron-bijutu Publishing Co., Japan.
- Matsumoto, Kimiko 1975. Sangen syoku no enogu bako (Three primary colors in painting box), Horupu Publishing Co., Japan. Sakai, Shingo 1989. Sakai shiki byouga sidouhou nyumon ( Introduction to Sakai method in drawing and painting), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan. Iwamoto, Yasuhiro 1990. Bunseki hihyou ni yoru meiga kansyou no jyugyou (Appreciating famous picture in art class: Appreciation by analytic criticism method), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan.
- For example, Gardner, Howard 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Basic Book Inc., New York, Gardner 1985. The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution, Basic Book Inc., New York, (It was translated into Japanese and published in 1987.)
- Web site http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e2043.html,
- Tansei-research institute 1987. Hakubutukan bijutukan no kyoiku program (Museum worksheet: educational program in museum). Japan. , Hokkaido Modern Art Museum 1989. Kaiga nyumon (Introduction to the appreciating picture: children and parents in museum), Shinchosya Publishing Co. Japan., Yamamoto, Ikuo (ed.) 1992-present. DOME: Document of Museum Education, Nihon-Bunkyo Publishing Co., Japan.
- Nishioka, Fumihiko 1992. Kaiga no mikata (Appreciation method of picture), Takarajima Publishing Co. Japan. , Amelia Arenas 1998. Naze kore ga art nano (Is This Art?: A Guide for Bewildered), Tanko-sya Publishing Co. Japan.
- Nishimura, Kazuko (supervised by Tuji, Sigeru) 1992-present. Ohanashi meiga shirizu (Picture book of masterpiece), Hakugado Publishing Co., Japan. Takashina, Syuji （supervised） 1994. Manga seiyo bijutu shi (Western art history with Manga (cartoon)), Bijutu-syuppan Publishing Co. Japan.
- Eisner, Elliot W. 1972. Educating Artistic Vision, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. New York. Greer, W. Dwaine 1984. "Discipline-Based Art Education: Approaching Art as a Subject of Study",Studies in Art Education: A Journal of Issues and Research in Art Education 25(4), NAEA (National Art Education Association), Virginia.( Research Readings for Discipline- based Art Education : A Journey Beyond Creating. (ed. by Dobbs et al.) NAEA, Virginia, 1988), Parsons, Michel J. (1987); How we understand Art: Cognitive developmental account of aesthetic experience, Cambridge Univ. Press., New York (It was translated into Japanese and published in 1996)
- Takayama, Masagiku and Higuchi, Toshio 1977. Kaitei syougakou gakusyu shidou youryiou no tenkai zuga kousaku hen (New Handicraft and drawing's contents in Revised Course of Study), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan, pp. 47-48
- Kitao, Norihiko 1991. Gakusyu sido no sinri gaku ( Psychology in Learning guidance). Yuhikaku Publishing Co., Japan. pp.113-137
- Monbusho(Ministry of Education) 1991. Shogakko zuga kousaku shidou shiryo (Handicraft and Drawing's Teaching Plan Resources in elementary school), Nihon-Bunkyo Publishing Co., Japan, pp.112- 115
- Web Site of Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Government of Japan (Monbusho), http://www.monbu.go.jp/emindex.html,http://www.mext.go.jp/english/, http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e2041.html.
- Fukomoto, Iwasaki, Uda, et al. 2002. "Report on Activities of the Research Forum 2001: Sougou gakusyu to bijutu kyoiku (Integrated Studies and Art Education)", Bijutu kyoiku gaku (The Journal for the Association of Art Education). No.23, Japan, pp. 295-322. http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/aae/kaisi.html
- Chapman, Laura H. 1988. Teaching Art, Davis Pub. Inc., Massachusetts. 20) In 2000, Yokohama National University held Extension lectures. This lecture's theme was Art Appreciation and Expression in German Gymnasium Class. In the lectures, Annemarie Schulze-Weslarn, a former teacher taught Fine Arts to the attendants as she taught in gymnasium school. Appreciation study was centered on in her art class.
- Okazaki, Akio 2000. "America bijutu kyouiku no doko (Art Education in the U.S.A.)", Bijutu kyoiku no kadai to tenbou (Problems and Prospects in Art Education), Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co., Japan, p.21.
Spatial Treatment in Children's Drawings: Why do Japanese children draw in particular ways?
Masami Toku, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
*This paper was presented at the graduate research session, NAEA conference, New Orleans, in 1997 and published by the School of Art & Art History of the University of Iowa, Marily Zurmuehlen Working Papers in Art Education , 1996-7, Number 14.
Introduction
In the study of children's artistic development, there are two main issues: one is universality in the pictorial world (pictorial presentation, composition, spatial treatment, and so on); another is called non-universality, which is social-cultural influences which appear in children's drawings (See Examples, Alland, 1983; Arnhein, 1954, 1969; Golomb, 1992; Goodnow, 1977; Kellogg, 1969) . The debate has been over which is predominant in children's development; however, the debate is no longer meaningful because we do not doubt that these two issues interact strongly. The debate in artistic development should be what kinds of social-cultural influences tend to emerge depending on the particular culture based on the universality in the pictorial world with children's physical growth (motor skills) and cognitive development (cognitive abilities).
The purpose of this study was to examine what kinds of social-cultural influences tend to emerge in the spatial presentation of children's drawings depending on the particular culture. How and why such particular social-cultural factors influence children's cognitive development was examined to consider a proper art curriculum to support children's cognitive development by understanding the effect of cultural and social influences on children's visual-spatial abilities. If cultural and social backgrounds affect children's cognitive development positively or negatively, it is crucial to consider the kinds of art curricula that should be developed to help children's visual thinking skills reflect cognitive development, by examining the effects of social-cultural factors.
This paper is divided into three parts: 1) the importance of studying spatial treatment in children's drawings; 2) the reviews of the pilot study of cross-cultural analysis of Japanese and US children that I did from 1993 through 1995; 3) Japanese children's characteristics in the spatial treatment from 1996 through 1997.
1. The importance of studying spatial treatment in children's drawings
As human abilities of cognition, how infants start to perceive depth and how they experience space as three-dimensional are fascinating subjects in developmental psychology. In the study of artistic development, how children start to draw space/depth on two-dimensional surfaces, such as paper, a wall, the ground, etc., and develop techniques of spatial presentation that allow them to depict relationships in a realistic manner is an important subject in the study of drawing.
We live in a three-dimensional world. We are able to perceive depth, length, and height without learning how to perceive these qualities from others. In addition, with physical growth (motor skills) and mental growth (cognitive abilities), infants start to scribble and eventually create their own pictorial worlds in drawings. In the process of creating a pictorial world, we can see a developmental direction in spatial presentation in children's drawings. How do children know how to create space/depth on flat surfaces by using techniques such as relative size, relative density, relative position, overlapping, and, finally, linear perspectives? Do children invent such techniques by themselves or learn from someone else -- parents, teachers, peers, or visual models? Is there a universality in the process of creating space on two-dimensional surfaces? When and how do social and cultural influences appear in spatial presentation in children's drawings? Which is dominant, universality or non-universality (culture specificity), in children's drawings? Does this dominance shift with age?
Although we take for granted the possibility of creating convincing illusions of space on two-dimensional surfaces, we have to realize that the techniques used to create space were just invented after the Renaissance period, in the fifteenth century. Until the Renaissance period, even adults who were artists did not have such techniques to create space on two-dimensional surfaces. Did children living in the fifteenth century know the techniques, although adults did not know? It seems unlikely. It is easy to imagine that there should be some differences between the drawings of children in the twentieth century and children in the fifteenth century and in the ways children create space, although we have few records of children's drawings in the fifteenth century. Furthermore, the new methods of creating space in the Renaissance period were just spread over Western world of Europe in those days. In Asia, Africa, Australia, and other areas, artists invented and used other techniques to create space on two-dimensional surfaces. For example, it is well known that Japanese artists created a new technique in the fourteenth century called “a bird-eye's view (looking obliquely down from sky like birds when they are flying)” to express space/depth on two-dimensional surfaces such as screens, hanging scrolls, and sliding doors. How and when universality and non-universality are interwoven in the process of creating space in children's drawings is an interesting and important subject in the study of artistic development.
2. The pilot study of cross-cultural analysis of artistic ability between US and Japanese children (1993 - 1995).
In a pilot study for Cross-cultural Analysis of Children's Artistic Development, about 1,000 drawings were collected from mainly two populations in Chicago and Champaign, and two cultures, which were Japanese and US children from 2nd, 4th, and 6th grades. There were significant differences in spatial development for the two populations as a result of analysis based on Eisner's 14 categories that he constructed in 1967 to see the differences between advantaged and disadvantaged children in the US (Eisner, 1967, 1972).
One difference is the speed of spatial development. In moving from one category to another, Japanese children are faster than US children and they showed a tendency to choose more complicated methods of creating space in their drawings than did US children. The reason is seemingly obvious. Unlike art education in the US, Japan has adopted a national curriculum, which means no matter where they are born, Japanese children have to take art class as a required course as well as other subjects from 1st through 9th grade during the compulsory educational period. It is easy to imagine how the art educational curriculum encourages Japanese children to develop their artistic ability.
I also found that Japanese children seemingly use some unique patterns when they create space, which US children seldom use. Actually, more than 20 % of Japanese children's drawings could not be classified into Eisner's categories, although less than 5% of US children's drawings could not be classified into the categories. Then what kinds of techniques do Japanese children use? I found at least 3 patterns: bird-eye's views , exaggerated views , and multi-perspective views (Toku, 1995, 1996).
Figure 1. Eisner's 13 spatial categories
Figure 2. Spatial Treatment in Drawings of Japanese and US Children (1 st – 6 th Grades)
However, it was too early to conclude that these were exactly Japanese children's characteristics since the drawings examined were collected from Japanese children who lived in Chicago, not in Japan, due to their parents' employment. To determine whether the patterns are really unique to Japanese children in elementary schools, I decided to develop this study to identify the socio-cultural influences that are responsible for the early emergence of these characteristics.
3. Why do Japanese children draw in their own ways? (1996 - 1997)
To find what kinds of socio-cultural factors actually influence the characteristics which appear in Japanese children's spatial treatment in drawings, in this study two tasks were given (drawing and judgment tasks) with the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis
There is a direction of development in spatial treatment in Japanese children's drawings regardless of areas in Japan.
There is a valid artistic developmental stage theory which can describe a qualitatively equal shift from one category to another in spatial treatment.
There are no unique patterns of creating space in Japanese children's drawings - Bird's-eye view, Exaggerated view, Multi-perspective view, etc.
Drawing task
About 2,500 drawings of 1st through 6th grade Japanese students who studied under the Japanese national curriculum were randomly selected from three areas (northern, central, and southern parts of Japan) to confirm whether characteristics which appeared in drawings are really particular to Japanese children. Japanese children drew the same subject as in the pilot study, “My friend & me playing in the school yard,” a theme investigated in an earlier study by Elliot Eisner (1967). First, Eisner's 14 spatial categories were used to classify the spatial similarities and differences of Japanese children's drawings with the statistical method, Chi-square. The result was that all three hypotheses were rejected. This means that Japanese children do not develop from one category to another based on Eisner's spatial categories and there is not a concrete direction of the development of spatial treatment in children's drawings. However, at the same time, we can see the same tendency found in the pilot study appear in three areas of Japan, as more than 30% of Japanese children drawings could not be classified in Eisner's categories. This indicates that Japanese children clearly have some unique patterns when they create space on 2-D surfaces.
Figure 3. Spatial Treatment of Japanese Children's Drawings (1 st – 6 th Grades)
The drawings were then reclassified according to Toku's 20 categories (1997) (which were constructed based on Eisner's 14 categories) to classify spatial presentation in Japanese children's drawings. These new categories were developed to categorize Japanese children's unique patterns of spatial treatment that could not be classified by Eisner's 14 categories. However, these do not a form spatial scale to show a developmental direction since children do not always shift from one to another category with their age. These categories are mainly composed of 8 concepts: 1. Mapping (category 1), 2. Alignments without a ground line (categories 2 through 4), 3. Alignments with a ground line (categories 3 through 10), 4. More than two ground lines (categories 11 and 12), 5. Open space (categories 13 and 14), 6. Photographic & exaggerated views (categories 15 and 16), 7. Bird's-eye views (categories 17 through 19), and 8. Multi-perspective views (category 20). Regardless of which of the three areas in Japan, children showed a tendency to often use complicated techniques of creating space considering their ages, such as photographic and exaggerated views in spite of the fact that younger students (1st and 2nd grade) chose alignment techniques when they created space due to their lack of skills rather than their lack of knowledge of the concept of space.
Figure 4. Toku's 20 Spatial Categories
Figure 5. Spatial Treatment in Japanese Children's Drawings at Toku's 20 Categories (1 st – 6 th Grades)
Judgment task and observation
The judgment task was implemented by asking six questions based on seven different types of spatial drawings to confirm the relationship between children's knowledge of depth and their actual drawings. About 1,000 pieces of data were randomly collected from the same three areas in Japan and analyzed to determine the correlation between children's cognitive development and their preference for drawings.
Figure 6. 7 Different Types of Spatial Drawings
The following six questions were asked: 1. Which picture is the best in showing spatial depth? (Which picture is the best in showing the relationship of far and close?); 2. Which picture is the worst in showing spatial depth?; 3. If you were to draw a forest scene, which picture is the closest to the one that you would draw?; 4. If you were to draw a forest scene, which would you never draw?; 5. which is your favorite picture?; 6. Which is your least favorite picture? The first two questions were to determine students' knowledge of space. The third and fourth questions were to find their actual drawings when they drew spatial scenes regardless of their knowledge of space. The fifth and sixth questions were related to aesthetics rather than drawing preference. These questions were given in different ways depending on their ages to make sure of their understanding of these questions' meanings. For each question, students were allowed to select one number and wrote which they chose among seven drawings (if students did not understand the meaning of the question, they were allowed to select the 8 th number) without discussing it with anyone. At the same time, students' reactions to these questions were observed.
In response the first and second questions, there was a big difference between 1 st graders and the rest of the grades. According to the data, 1 st grade students' responses were spread over six pictures, which suggests that they did not have the concept of space. In addition, 10 to 15 % of 1 st grade students responded that they did not understand the meaning of the first and second questions. However, most students already tend to have the concept of space before reaching 2 nd grade. In the 3 rd and 4 th questions, students' actual drawings shifted from the alignment type of drawings to more complicated spatial drawings, such as picture six (photographic picture) and seven (exaggerated view) with their ages. In spite of the fact that most students, regardless of their age, show their preference for the number five (relative-size picture) or six pictures, younger students tend to choose the technique of number one and two (alignment pictures without and with a horizon line) when they draw. This indicates that students have a tendency to draw at that their own skill level rather than their preference. In the final 5 th and 6 th questions asking their aesthetic preference, more than twenty percent of all students selected the exaggerated view (picture six) as their favorite picture, and they selected the open-box view's picture (picture three) as their least favorite picture. Despite students' aesthetic preferences, their actual drawings show their ability and limitation of motor skills.
Figure 7. Question 1 in Judgment Test
Figure 8. Question 2 in Judgment Test
Figure 9. Question 3 in Judgment Test
Figure 10. Question 4 in Judgment Test
Figure 11. Question 5 in Judgment Test
Figure 12. Question 6 in Judgment Test
Discussion
According to the results of the observation, the assumption that Japanese children's creation of space in their drawings was due to the national curriculum was rejected. In the elementary school in Japan, teaching the concept of space and the techniques of creating space in drawings was not required in the national curriculum. This means that most children never learn the techniques of creating space through art education of the national curriculum in Japan. Then how do Japanese children learn unique patterns of creating space in drawings and why do they draw in particular ways?
There are some possible reasons beyond the national curriculum. One possibility is the classroom orientation. Unlike the US, where children are encouraged to solve problems individually, Japanese children are encouraged to think about problems in a group. Through conversation with peers, children tend to solve problems relatively easily and quickly (e.g. how to create space in 2-D surfaces). Another possibility is the Japanese aesthetic. Golomb (1992) says that each culture has a different type of aesthetic when they create spatial presentation. Finally, the third possibility is the big influence from Japanese cartoons, called “Manga” in Japanese. Many researchers mention that the influence of Manga appears in Japanese children's pictorial worlds, especially on figures in their drawings. However, the influence of Manga was not only on figures, but also on the creation of space, since one of Japanese Manga's characteristics is the complexity of background depicted in the drawings. Manga is not just in comic books in Japan. Manga is already a part of Japanese culture. Through the pictorial creations of Manga, children learn how to draw and how to create space on 2-D surfaces, but not from teachers, and not from the art curriculum itself.
As another possibility, some researches tend to easily conclude that characteristics which appear in Japanese children's drawings are due to the influence of Japanese traditional art such as the bird's eye views of screen painting and the exaggerated views of Ukiyo-e painting. Those Japanese traditional arts might influence the spatial treatment in Japanese children's drawings; however, these influences cannot be main factors. If Japanese children's characteristics are a result of Japanese traditional arts, the same kinds of characteristics should have emerged for a long time in Japanese children's drawings. I could not often find such tendencies in Japanese children's drawings as early as 30 years ago. Assuming some strong socio-cultural influences have caused the appearance of these Japanese children's drawing characteristics since that time is more likely than ascribing these characteristics to the influences of Japanese traditional arts.
Conclusion
Bruner (1996) says that all development is undoubtedly not free from culture. Nevertheless, Cole (1996) argues that there is no theory which explains how a particular culture affects cognitive development in a particular direction. It might be true since it is very difficult to define what is the particular socio-cultural factor which causes a particular direction of children's cognitive development. The process of cultural development is not so simple that a conclusion cannot easily be reached. However, it is also true that it is relatively easy to find some socio-cultural characteristics which appear in children's artistic development in a particular culture. The problem is that we cannot determine what the main socio-cultural influences that cause such characteristics are.
The purpose of my research is to challenge Cole's argument. One of my research goals is to find what particular cultural factors cause such characteristics as appear in Japanese children's techniques in spatial treatment in their drawings that the US children seldom use. In addition, how the particular cultural influence, which mainly appears only in Japanese children's drawings, may possibly expand to other children who belong to different cultures in other Asian countries. I am eager to try to construct a “map” of cultural expansion. If I can find a clue of the map of cultural expansion based on my research, which is “spatial treatment in children drawings,” it may be possible to predict how a particular cultural factor tends to spread to other cultures. Also, this might lead to the creation of proper art educational curricula to support and encourage children's cognitive and artistic development as well as their interests and preferences.
References
*This paper was presented at the graduate research session, NAEA conference, New Orleans, in 1997 and published by the School of Art & Art History of the University of Iowa, Marily Zurmuehlen Working Papers in Art Education , 1996-7, Number 14.
Introduction
In the study of children's artistic development, there are two main issues: one is universality in the pictorial world (pictorial presentation, composition, spatial treatment, and so on); another is called non-universality, which is social-cultural influences which appear in children's drawings (See Examples, Alland, 1983; Arnhein, 1954, 1969; Golomb, 1992; Goodnow, 1977; Kellogg, 1969) . The debate has been over which is predominant in children's development; however, the debate is no longer meaningful because we do not doubt that these two issues interact strongly. The debate in artistic development should be what kinds of social-cultural influences tend to emerge depending on the particular culture based on the universality in the pictorial world with children's physical growth (motor skills) and cognitive development (cognitive abilities).
The purpose of this study was to examine what kinds of social-cultural influences tend to emerge in the spatial presentation of children's drawings depending on the particular culture. How and why such particular social-cultural factors influence children's cognitive development was examined to consider a proper art curriculum to support children's cognitive development by understanding the effect of cultural and social influences on children's visual-spatial abilities. If cultural and social backgrounds affect children's cognitive development positively or negatively, it is crucial to consider the kinds of art curricula that should be developed to help children's visual thinking skills reflect cognitive development, by examining the effects of social-cultural factors.
This paper is divided into three parts: 1) the importance of studying spatial treatment in children's drawings; 2) the reviews of the pilot study of cross-cultural analysis of Japanese and US children that I did from 1993 through 1995; 3) Japanese children's characteristics in the spatial treatment from 1996 through 1997.
1. The importance of studying spatial treatment in children's drawings
As human abilities of cognition, how infants start to perceive depth and how they experience space as three-dimensional are fascinating subjects in developmental psychology. In the study of artistic development, how children start to draw space/depth on two-dimensional surfaces, such as paper, a wall, the ground, etc., and develop techniques of spatial presentation that allow them to depict relationships in a realistic manner is an important subject in the study of drawing.
We live in a three-dimensional world. We are able to perceive depth, length, and height without learning how to perceive these qualities from others. In addition, with physical growth (motor skills) and mental growth (cognitive abilities), infants start to scribble and eventually create their own pictorial worlds in drawings. In the process of creating a pictorial world, we can see a developmental direction in spatial presentation in children's drawings. How do children know how to create space/depth on flat surfaces by using techniques such as relative size, relative density, relative position, overlapping, and, finally, linear perspectives? Do children invent such techniques by themselves or learn from someone else -- parents, teachers, peers, or visual models? Is there a universality in the process of creating space on two-dimensional surfaces? When and how do social and cultural influences appear in spatial presentation in children's drawings? Which is dominant, universality or non-universality (culture specificity), in children's drawings? Does this dominance shift with age?
Although we take for granted the possibility of creating convincing illusions of space on two-dimensional surfaces, we have to realize that the techniques used to create space were just invented after the Renaissance period, in the fifteenth century. Until the Renaissance period, even adults who were artists did not have such techniques to create space on two-dimensional surfaces. Did children living in the fifteenth century know the techniques, although adults did not know? It seems unlikely. It is easy to imagine that there should be some differences between the drawings of children in the twentieth century and children in the fifteenth century and in the ways children create space, although we have few records of children's drawings in the fifteenth century. Furthermore, the new methods of creating space in the Renaissance period were just spread over Western world of Europe in those days. In Asia, Africa, Australia, and other areas, artists invented and used other techniques to create space on two-dimensional surfaces. For example, it is well known that Japanese artists created a new technique in the fourteenth century called “a bird-eye's view (looking obliquely down from sky like birds when they are flying)” to express space/depth on two-dimensional surfaces such as screens, hanging scrolls, and sliding doors. How and when universality and non-universality are interwoven in the process of creating space in children's drawings is an interesting and important subject in the study of artistic development.
2. The pilot study of cross-cultural analysis of artistic ability between US and Japanese children (1993 - 1995).
In a pilot study for Cross-cultural Analysis of Children's Artistic Development, about 1,000 drawings were collected from mainly two populations in Chicago and Champaign, and two cultures, which were Japanese and US children from 2nd, 4th, and 6th grades. There were significant differences in spatial development for the two populations as a result of analysis based on Eisner's 14 categories that he constructed in 1967 to see the differences between advantaged and disadvantaged children in the US (Eisner, 1967, 1972).
One difference is the speed of spatial development. In moving from one category to another, Japanese children are faster than US children and they showed a tendency to choose more complicated methods of creating space in their drawings than did US children. The reason is seemingly obvious. Unlike art education in the US, Japan has adopted a national curriculum, which means no matter where they are born, Japanese children have to take art class as a required course as well as other subjects from 1st through 9th grade during the compulsory educational period. It is easy to imagine how the art educational curriculum encourages Japanese children to develop their artistic ability.
I also found that Japanese children seemingly use some unique patterns when they create space, which US children seldom use. Actually, more than 20 % of Japanese children's drawings could not be classified into Eisner's categories, although less than 5% of US children's drawings could not be classified into the categories. Then what kinds of techniques do Japanese children use? I found at least 3 patterns: bird-eye's views , exaggerated views , and multi-perspective views (Toku, 1995, 1996).
Figure 1. Eisner's 13 spatial categories
Figure 2. Spatial Treatment in Drawings of Japanese and US Children (1 st – 6 th Grades)
However, it was too early to conclude that these were exactly Japanese children's characteristics since the drawings examined were collected from Japanese children who lived in Chicago, not in Japan, due to their parents' employment. To determine whether the patterns are really unique to Japanese children in elementary schools, I decided to develop this study to identify the socio-cultural influences that are responsible for the early emergence of these characteristics.
3. Why do Japanese children draw in their own ways? (1996 - 1997)
To find what kinds of socio-cultural factors actually influence the characteristics which appear in Japanese children's spatial treatment in drawings, in this study two tasks were given (drawing and judgment tasks) with the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis
There is a direction of development in spatial treatment in Japanese children's drawings regardless of areas in Japan.
There is a valid artistic developmental stage theory which can describe a qualitatively equal shift from one category to another in spatial treatment.
There are no unique patterns of creating space in Japanese children's drawings - Bird's-eye view, Exaggerated view, Multi-perspective view, etc.
Drawing task
About 2,500 drawings of 1st through 6th grade Japanese students who studied under the Japanese national curriculum were randomly selected from three areas (northern, central, and southern parts of Japan) to confirm whether characteristics which appeared in drawings are really particular to Japanese children. Japanese children drew the same subject as in the pilot study, “My friend & me playing in the school yard,” a theme investigated in an earlier study by Elliot Eisner (1967). First, Eisner's 14 spatial categories were used to classify the spatial similarities and differences of Japanese children's drawings with the statistical method, Chi-square. The result was that all three hypotheses were rejected. This means that Japanese children do not develop from one category to another based on Eisner's spatial categories and there is not a concrete direction of the development of spatial treatment in children's drawings. However, at the same time, we can see the same tendency found in the pilot study appear in three areas of Japan, as more than 30% of Japanese children drawings could not be classified in Eisner's categories. This indicates that Japanese children clearly have some unique patterns when they create space on 2-D surfaces.
Figure 3. Spatial Treatment of Japanese Children's Drawings (1 st – 6 th Grades)
The drawings were then reclassified according to Toku's 20 categories (1997) (which were constructed based on Eisner's 14 categories) to classify spatial presentation in Japanese children's drawings. These new categories were developed to categorize Japanese children's unique patterns of spatial treatment that could not be classified by Eisner's 14 categories. However, these do not a form spatial scale to show a developmental direction since children do not always shift from one to another category with their age. These categories are mainly composed of 8 concepts: 1. Mapping (category 1), 2. Alignments without a ground line (categories 2 through 4), 3. Alignments with a ground line (categories 3 through 10), 4. More than two ground lines (categories 11 and 12), 5. Open space (categories 13 and 14), 6. Photographic & exaggerated views (categories 15 and 16), 7. Bird's-eye views (categories 17 through 19), and 8. Multi-perspective views (category 20). Regardless of which of the three areas in Japan, children showed a tendency to often use complicated techniques of creating space considering their ages, such as photographic and exaggerated views in spite of the fact that younger students (1st and 2nd grade) chose alignment techniques when they created space due to their lack of skills rather than their lack of knowledge of the concept of space.
Figure 4. Toku's 20 Spatial Categories
Figure 5. Spatial Treatment in Japanese Children's Drawings at Toku's 20 Categories (1 st – 6 th Grades)
Judgment task and observation
The judgment task was implemented by asking six questions based on seven different types of spatial drawings to confirm the relationship between children's knowledge of depth and their actual drawings. About 1,000 pieces of data were randomly collected from the same three areas in Japan and analyzed to determine the correlation between children's cognitive development and their preference for drawings.
Figure 6. 7 Different Types of Spatial Drawings
The following six questions were asked: 1. Which picture is the best in showing spatial depth? (Which picture is the best in showing the relationship of far and close?); 2. Which picture is the worst in showing spatial depth?; 3. If you were to draw a forest scene, which picture is the closest to the one that you would draw?; 4. If you were to draw a forest scene, which would you never draw?; 5. which is your favorite picture?; 6. Which is your least favorite picture? The first two questions were to determine students' knowledge of space. The third and fourth questions were to find their actual drawings when they drew spatial scenes regardless of their knowledge of space. The fifth and sixth questions were related to aesthetics rather than drawing preference. These questions were given in different ways depending on their ages to make sure of their understanding of these questions' meanings. For each question, students were allowed to select one number and wrote which they chose among seven drawings (if students did not understand the meaning of the question, they were allowed to select the 8 th number) without discussing it with anyone. At the same time, students' reactions to these questions were observed.
In response the first and second questions, there was a big difference between 1 st graders and the rest of the grades. According to the data, 1 st grade students' responses were spread over six pictures, which suggests that they did not have the concept of space. In addition, 10 to 15 % of 1 st grade students responded that they did not understand the meaning of the first and second questions. However, most students already tend to have the concept of space before reaching 2 nd grade. In the 3 rd and 4 th questions, students' actual drawings shifted from the alignment type of drawings to more complicated spatial drawings, such as picture six (photographic picture) and seven (exaggerated view) with their ages. In spite of the fact that most students, regardless of their age, show their preference for the number five (relative-size picture) or six pictures, younger students tend to choose the technique of number one and two (alignment pictures without and with a horizon line) when they draw. This indicates that students have a tendency to draw at that their own skill level rather than their preference. In the final 5 th and 6 th questions asking their aesthetic preference, more than twenty percent of all students selected the exaggerated view (picture six) as their favorite picture, and they selected the open-box view's picture (picture three) as their least favorite picture. Despite students' aesthetic preferences, their actual drawings show their ability and limitation of motor skills.
Figure 7. Question 1 in Judgment Test
Figure 8. Question 2 in Judgment Test
Figure 9. Question 3 in Judgment Test
Figure 10. Question 4 in Judgment Test
Figure 11. Question 5 in Judgment Test
Figure 12. Question 6 in Judgment Test
Discussion
According to the results of the observation, the assumption that Japanese children's creation of space in their drawings was due to the national curriculum was rejected. In the elementary school in Japan, teaching the concept of space and the techniques of creating space in drawings was not required in the national curriculum. This means that most children never learn the techniques of creating space through art education of the national curriculum in Japan. Then how do Japanese children learn unique patterns of creating space in drawings and why do they draw in particular ways?
There are some possible reasons beyond the national curriculum. One possibility is the classroom orientation. Unlike the US, where children are encouraged to solve problems individually, Japanese children are encouraged to think about problems in a group. Through conversation with peers, children tend to solve problems relatively easily and quickly (e.g. how to create space in 2-D surfaces). Another possibility is the Japanese aesthetic. Golomb (1992) says that each culture has a different type of aesthetic when they create spatial presentation. Finally, the third possibility is the big influence from Japanese cartoons, called “Manga” in Japanese. Many researchers mention that the influence of Manga appears in Japanese children's pictorial worlds, especially on figures in their drawings. However, the influence of Manga was not only on figures, but also on the creation of space, since one of Japanese Manga's characteristics is the complexity of background depicted in the drawings. Manga is not just in comic books in Japan. Manga is already a part of Japanese culture. Through the pictorial creations of Manga, children learn how to draw and how to create space on 2-D surfaces, but not from teachers, and not from the art curriculum itself.
As another possibility, some researches tend to easily conclude that characteristics which appear in Japanese children's drawings are due to the influence of Japanese traditional art such as the bird's eye views of screen painting and the exaggerated views of Ukiyo-e painting. Those Japanese traditional arts might influence the spatial treatment in Japanese children's drawings; however, these influences cannot be main factors. If Japanese children's characteristics are a result of Japanese traditional arts, the same kinds of characteristics should have emerged for a long time in Japanese children's drawings. I could not often find such tendencies in Japanese children's drawings as early as 30 years ago. Assuming some strong socio-cultural influences have caused the appearance of these Japanese children's drawing characteristics since that time is more likely than ascribing these characteristics to the influences of Japanese traditional arts.
Conclusion
Bruner (1996) says that all development is undoubtedly not free from culture. Nevertheless, Cole (1996) argues that there is no theory which explains how a particular culture affects cognitive development in a particular direction. It might be true since it is very difficult to define what is the particular socio-cultural factor which causes a particular direction of children's cognitive development. The process of cultural development is not so simple that a conclusion cannot easily be reached. However, it is also true that it is relatively easy to find some socio-cultural characteristics which appear in children's artistic development in a particular culture. The problem is that we cannot determine what the main socio-cultural influences that cause such characteristics are.
The purpose of my research is to challenge Cole's argument. One of my research goals is to find what particular cultural factors cause such characteristics as appear in Japanese children's techniques in spatial treatment in their drawings that the US children seldom use. In addition, how the particular cultural influence, which mainly appears only in Japanese children's drawings, may possibly expand to other children who belong to different cultures in other Asian countries. I am eager to try to construct a “map” of cultural expansion. If I can find a clue of the map of cultural expansion based on my research, which is “spatial treatment in children drawings,” it may be possible to predict how a particular cultural factor tends to spread to other cultures. Also, this might lead to the creation of proper art educational curricula to support and encourage children's cognitive and artistic development as well as their interests and preferences.
References
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